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REPORT 



ON THE 



AGRICULTUPiE AO INDUSTEY 



OP THE 



COUNTY OF ONONDA.a^, 



STATE OF NEW YORK, 



With an Introductory Account of the Aborigines, 



\^/(^'^ BY GEORGE GEDDES. 



FROM THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE N. Y. STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, 1859. 



ALBANY : 

CHARLES VAN BENTHUYSEN, PRINTEE. 
1860. 



s& 









F 1 'I ■] 



SURVEY OF ONONDAGA. 

To the Executive Committee of theN. Y. State Agricultural Society : 

In obedience to your request, I have drawn up, for the use of our So- 
ciety, a report on the county of Onondaga; I have endeavored to follow 
the plan furnished me by you, so far as the same appeared applicable to 
this county. The object has been to determine facts, and to state them in 
the simplest form practicable — avoiding the discussion of theories, except 
in cases that did not allow of the facts, being determined with certainty. 
I have freely availed myself of the labors of others who have gone before 
me, in all of the branches of the subject in hand. Credit will be found 
given in notes, in various places, to the authorities consulted ; and I have 
received valuable aid from various persons, to whom I desire to return my 
thanks. I am particularly '"ndebted to Mr. W. M. Beauchamp, of Skane- 
ateles, for a list and description of troublesome weeds ; to Mr. Chester 
Moses, of the same place, for information in regard to the cultivation of 
teasels ; to Mr. Benjamin Clark, of Marcellus, and Col. Mars Nearing, of 
Brewer ton, for information in regard to the cultivation of tobacco ; and to 
Prof. James Johonnot, of Syracuse, for the particulars of the free schools 
of that city. 

The topographical and geological map, that accompanies this report, has 
been made with care, intending to show, as accurately as practicable on so 
small a scale, the dividing lines between the various geological formations, 
and to locate the hills as they really exist. The heights given in the geo- 
logical section, have been determined correctly by a level used under my 
direction by H. W, Clarke, C. E. The hills, and many of the small 
streams, have been determined by H. D. L. Sweet, topographical engineer, 
by actual survey. It is not intended to say that there are no errors in this 
map, but that an attempt has been made to get as near accuracy as prac- 
ticable, with the time and means at my disposal. 

The great object, in the whole work, has been to make it useful ; origi- 
nality is not claimed ; in fact, I consider myself as but the compiler, rather 
than the author of the report. It is not put forth to enlighten scientific 
men ; to such, it will appear but a small matter ; but to assist our farmers 
in that advancement of their interests they are seeking. With these few 
preliminary reniarks, the report is submitted for your consideration. 
Fairmount, Onondaga Co., N. Y., Feb., 1860. GEO. GEDDES. 



The committee to which was referred the survey of Onondaga county, as 
made by the Hon. George Geddes, beg leave to report: 

That they have had the same under consideration, and through the cour- 
tesy of Mr. Geddes, nearly the whole report has been read to them during 
the time spent at the annual meeting. 

The county of Onondaga, from its geographical position, as well as from 



its peculiar topography, possesses especial interest. In its geology may be 
studied the rocks and consequent soils which characterize the general cul- 
tivation of a large number of the counties lying west and southwest there- 
from. So diversified is the county, that a survey of several towns will 
serve as a history of the agricultural condition of those counties whose 
agriculture is therein represented. It may be divided into three sections, 
from east to west ; each division being distinctly marked, as well by the 
rocks that underlay it, as the timber and agricultural productions most con- 
genial to the soil. 

The committee, after referring to the different geological sections, into 
which this county may be divided, which are carefully described in the 
survey, remark : 

Hence, if an agricultural survey of this county could be made by a com- 
petent person, familiar with its diversified soil and cultivation, and able to 
place before the reader, in a clear and intelligent manner, the facts most 
important for comprehending the true condition of the farmers, as well as 
their best modes of cultivation, we should have a report in reality, cover- 
ing an area of about one-fourth of the State, or nearly twenty of its most 
important counties. 

From his large experience as a practical farmer, and being a native of 
the county, "■ to the manor born," and thus from his boyhood familiar with 
its agricultural and industrial progress, Mr. Geddes seems to be pre-emi- 
nently fitted for the task, which this survey will show to have been so ably 
and faithfully performed. 

Though each chapter contains valuable matter that could not well be 
omitted, yet the committee would commend that upon "Practical Agricul- 
ture," as one well worthy the especial study and consideration of any farmer. 

While the committee gladly bear witness to the great value of the report 
or survey, and to the intelligent industry displayed in its preparation, making 
it a model that others may imitate to advantage, yet they are constrained 
to say that but for the vast amount of desirable historical knowledge in 
regard to the Indians, which is found in no other work in so compact and 
accessible form, they should have been unwilling to allow the publication, 
in our Annual Transactions, of subjects which more properly belong to the 
historian than the agriculturist. 

The committee take great pleasure in recommending the acceptance of 
the survey, and its publication in the Transactions of the Society. 

Inasmuch as it is understood that the sum allowed to Mr. Geddes for 
this survey, has been nearly or quite absorbed in the expenses incident to 
its preparation, for surveys, engravings, and topographical surveys and 
drawings ; and from the fact that he relinquishes to the Society his claim 
to the copyright, the committee advise that the Society make him some 
suitable testimonial of their appreciation of his labors. To that end they 
recommend that plate, to the amount of $100, bearing suitable inscription, 
be awarded to him. WILLIAM KELLY, 

T. C. PETERS, 

Albany, Feb. Sth, 1860. EDWARD G. FAILE. 



INTRODUCTION. 



In gathering the materials for a report on the industry of Onondaga county, 
■which was to be prefaced by some account of its early settlement, it seemed desi- 
rable to determine ^?ho was the first Eu opean that visited it. In settling this 
point many volumes were consulted, and many interesting facts in regard to the 
Aborigines were learned, that gradually mingled in the mind of the writer, with 
things before known by him, and assuming form and method, the whole subject 
at last took the shape in which it appears in the Introduction. A report on the 
agricultural and general industry of a county, certainly does not call for a history 
of the savages who once hunted and fished within its boundaries, and it was no 
part of the original purpose to attempt any such matter j but once interested in 
the subject, it was pursued to the end. In this form the whole report was sub- 
mitted to the committee of the s ciety, and by them the Introduction, as well as 
the Eeport, was ordered printed. 



The first settlers of Onondaga found in possession the remnants of a once power- 
ful race of men, whose ancient renown deserves preservation by us who now possess 
the burial places of their fathers. These Indians, as their conquerors, have 
insisted on calling them, had no written history, their deeds of arms, and the 
decisions of their councils, being preserved only by their traditions, and by strings 
of beads, belts of wampum, and other mysterious symbols, that, during their 
savage state, were carefully ' preserved, an-! transmitted from generation to gen- 
eration. They are themselves losing all knowledge of their own past history, 
and very soon there will be nothing preserved, except what may suit the con- 
queror to say of them. This being so, it perhaps will not be considered out of 
place here to try and grorp, in a very condensed form, such portions of their his- 
tory as may particularly appertain to the Onondaga family. 

The traditions of this people fix their origin at the Falls of the Oswego. Ondi- 
yaka, who died in 1839, at the age of ninety, believed this tradition, saying to Le 
Fort, who succeeded him as ruling Chief, that they were created by Neo (God) where 
they lived, and he said, as he walked over the ruins of ancient forts in the valley 
of the Kasonda ( Butternut creek), this was the spot where the Onondagas formerly 
lived before the confederation. In those times the tribes went to war with each 
other, and it is probable that the ancient forts found in Central New York, which 
were evidently made before any white man had come here, owe their origin to these 
wars, and were built for protection against savages like themselves.* After the 
confederation of the five nations, these fortifications being no longer necessary, they 
fell into decay, and now, where the forest remains to protect the circular cr ring 
works, we find large trees on their earth walls. 

The term Iroquois has been given by the French as the national name for this 
people, and by it they are now everywhere known. The}'- called themselves Ong 
we ffonwrc, or a people surpassing all others. The name they gave to the confede- 
racy was Ko-NOSHiONi, UNITED PEOPLE. There are no means of knowing the pre- 
* Schoolcraft's Report ; Senate Doc. 24, 1846, page 29. 



cise date of their confederating into one people. Schoolcraft thinks it "was a com 
paratively recent act, but probably early in the fifteenth century ; their own tra- 
ditions carry it far back to wars with giants and demons. 

The Iroquois confederacy consisted of five nations, viz., the central, known as 
the Onondaga, with which was intrusted the keeping and holding of the councils ; 
the Cayugas and the Senecas, on the west, and the Oneidas and Mohawks on the 
east. The Senecas, in their expressive language, kept the west door, and the 
Mohawks the east door of their long house, stretching from the Hudson to the 
lakes, a distance that now requires three hundred and twenty-five miles of railroad 
to measure. This was the seat of their power, but was by no means the limit of 
their territorial possessions. The confederacy was governed by hereditary chiefs, 
whose claims were subjected to the decision of a national council. Thus the aris- 
tocratic principle was brought into subjection to the democratic. When the here- 
ditary chief demanded oflSce, if found unworthy, he must give place to the 
next in order. In council they were a pure republic, the veto of one chief was 
sufficient to defeat a measure.* Each canton or tribe was independent ; its quota 
of men was freely voted in war, or refused, without complaint fi om other cantons; 
thus was guaranteed to each tribe its independence and security, and to each war- 
rior his equal rights, while general power was conceded to the confederacy in all 
national matters. In 1774, Canassatego, one of the chiefs, said to the commis- 
sioners of Pennsylvania, Virginia and Maryland : " Our wise forefathers esta- 
blished union and amity between the Five Nations. This has made us formidable. 
This has given us great weight and authority with our neighboring nations. We 
are a powerful confederacy, and by observing the same methods our forefathers 
have taken, you will acquire fresh strength and power; therefore, I counsel you, 
whatever befalls you, never fall out with one another." 

The traditions of the tribes all agree in the origin of the confederacy, and that 
the council forming it was held on the shores of lake Oh-nen-ta-ha (Onondaga). 
The right of the Onondagas to furnish a presiding officer for the league was con- 
ceded, and is still possessed by them. To the iMohawks was awarded the Te-ka-ra- 
ho-gea, or chief war captain. At the formation of the confederacy, the famous 
A-TO-TAR-HO presided; unequalled in war and arts, his fame had spread abroad, 
and exalted the Onondaga tribe to a pre-eminent position. His name is " like that 
of King Arthur of the Round Table, or those of the Paladins of Charlemagne, 
used as an exemplar of glory and honor, "f and has become the title of office of 
the presiding chief. The great council has always consisted of six members, 
each nation having one, exci.pt the Senecas, who were allowed two, in considera- 
tion of their greater numerical strength. Its powers were merely advisory, aiming 
to arrive at harmonious results, by interchange of opinion without formal vote. 
No penalties could be inflicted, or power exerted beyond that of opinion". A 
unanimous decision was first required; this once obtained, its authority was abso- 
lute, each tribe acting through its representative, who was first informed as to its 
views. These decisions were in fact clothed with all the power of the most popu- 
lar expression of the whole confederacy. 

A government like this gave to the orator, who by his eloquence could sway his 
people, a vast influence, and we find that many men of note have appeared among 
them since they came in contact with more learned races of men, who were abun- 
dantly qualified to conduct their negotiations, and have reflected as much renown 
on their nation as their bravest warriors. 

• Schoolcraft ; same doc, p. 51. f Schoolcraft. 



The unwritten law of this wonderful people had a power unequalled by any 
statutes ever recorded in books. A single instance of its power will be sufficient. 
It is given on the authority of Mr. Webster, who lived many years among the 
Onondagas, and had a woman of that tribe for a wife. 

A young man of the Ca3mgas came to Onondaga and claimed their hospitality. 
He lived among them two years, attaching himself to Webster particularly. He 
appeared contented and happy, " always foremost in the chase, most active in the 
dance, and loudest in the song.*' Mantinoah was his name. One morning he said 
to his friend, " I have a vow to perform; my nation and my friends know Manti- 
noah will be true. My friend, I wish you to go with me." Webster consented. 
After a pleasant journey of a few days, enlivened with fishing and hunting, they 
came, in the afternoon, to a place that Mantinoah said was near his village, and 
where he wished to invoke the Great Spirit. After a repast, and the pipe had been 
smoked, Mantinoah said, " two winters have gone since, in my village, in the fury 
of anger, I slew my bosom friend and adopted brother. The chiefs declared me 
guilty of my brother's blood, and I must die. My execution was deferred for two 
full years, during which time I was condemned to banishment ; I vowed to 
return. It was then I sought your nation; it was thus I won your friendship. 
The nearest in blood to him I slew, according to our customs, is the avenger. The 
time expires when the sun sinks behind the topmost boughs of the trees; I am 
ready. My friend, we have had many a cheerful sport together; our joys have been 
many; our griefs have been few; look not sad now. When you return to the Onon- 
dagas, tell them that Mantinoah died like a true brave of the Cayugas ; tell them 
he trembled not at the approach of dsath, like the coward pale face, nor shed tears 
like a woman. My friend, take my belt, my knife, my hunting pouch, my horn, 
my rifle, as tokens of my friendship. Soon the avenger will come ; the Great 
Spirit calls; Mantinoah fears not death; farewell." Vainly Webster urged him 
to escape. A short period of silence, and a yell is heard. Mantinoah responds. 
The avenger appears and takes the hand of his former friend, now his victim. 
IMutual salutations follow, with expressions of regret made by the executioner, 
but none by the doomed. The tomahawk gleams in the air, not a muscle moves, 
nor does the cheek of Mantinoah blanch, folding his arms on his breast, he receives 
the blow. As if by magic a host appears; the song of death is sung, and the 
solemn dance or death march is performed. Webster is invited to the village, 
where he is hospitably entertained, and when ready to return is accompanied by a 
party of Cayugas to his home.* 

Thus powerful was the unwritten law of the Iroquois. 

It is not easy for us to understand this people, for we know but little of their 
peculiar springs of action. They had their religion, which the white men that came 
in contact with them called their superstition. If superstition it be, it was never- 
theless the principle that governed them; and did we but understand their ideas 
fully, we should know by what standard to judge them. Whoever has learned 
much of their history, knows that in their savage state, woman made prisoner, was 
never indelicately approached by him, who, without pity, would brain her infant 
child. The reason was, that it would have been a complete desecration for a brave 
to entangle himself by a more tender sentiment than war, and should he do so he 
would subject himself to the contempt of his fellows. f 

He tortured and killed his prisoners, if he did not adopt them into his family, 
but he never enslaved them, nor outraged women. What other nation can say this 
with truth ? 

• Clark's Onondaga. f Schoolcraft. 



Mr. Schoolcraft says, that to understand the government, and learn how it 
acquired so much power and fame, it is necessary to examine the law of descent. 
Each canton was divided into distinct clans, each of which is distinguished hy the 
name and device of some quadruped, bird, or other object in the animal kingdom. 
• It was contrary to their usages that near kindred should intermarry, and the 
ancient rule interdicts all marriages between persons of the same clan. The popu- 
lation is separated into eight clans or original families, who are distinguished 
respectively by the totems of the wolf, the bear, the turtle, the deer, the beaver, 
the falcon, the crane and the plover. They must marry into clans whose totem is 
different from their own. A wolf or turtle male cannot marry a wolf or turtle 
female. There is an interdict of consanguinitjr. By this custom the purity of 
blood is preserved, while the tie of relationship between the clans is strengthened 
or enlarged. By far the most singular principle connected with totems, is the limi- 
tation of descent exclusively to the line of the female. Owing to this prohibition 
the chieftain's son cannot succeed him in office; but in case of his death he would 
be succeeded by his brother, or failing in this, by the son of his sister, or by some 
direct, however remote descendant of the maternal line. Thus no man, however 
distinguished in war or council, can establish a family or transmit the power he 
has acquired to his descendants. The man who, by inheritance, is entitled to the 
honors of chieftainship must, on arriving at the proper age, submit his right to the 
decisions of a council of the whole canton. If approved, he is formally installed 
in office. Incapacity is always and without exception recognized as a valid objec- 
tion to approval. 

Each canton had its eight principal chiefs, and various assistant chiefs. - These 
were civil officers. The war chiefs derived their consequence from their success in 
war, and rose up as the exigencies of the nation demanded, and sustained them- 
selves by their capacity. All males were, by the unvarying usage, bound to render 
military service. Disgrace was the penalty for a failure to obey the usage. Thus 
the ranks were always full, and all war parties consisted of volunteers. No title 
was so honored as Roskeahragehte, or warrior. Each warrior supplied and carried 
his own arms and provisions. The enlistment consisted simply in joining the war 
dance. No measure, though adopted by the civil and war chiefs, could be carried 
out unless sanctioned by the fighting men, if it involved war. Thus, in fact and 
in practice, the government became a pure democracy, controlled by its martial 
spirit. 

The strangest feature of the government yet remains to be mentioned. This was 
the power of the women. From the earliest time this power has existed, and 
through all changes has been preserved to this day. There was a male functionary, 
an acknowledged orator, whose duty it was to speak for the women. The matrons 
sat in council, and had the right to propose a cessation of arms; and a proposition 
from them could be made without compromitting the character of the tribe for 
bravery. Councils so organized were swayed by popular will, and eloquence found 
an ample field for the display of its noblest powers. 

The Iroquois have been charged with making their women beasts of burden, 
while they lived lives of indolence. The division of labor between the sexes, it is 
true, differed widely from ours. To the warrior was assigned the duty of hunting 
food, and protecting his hunting grounds from inroads of the enemy. His life was 
daily in his hands, and such were the hazards he encountered, that there were 
more women than men always to be found in the tribes. He spent a long and 
dreary hunting season in taking furs, which, when brought home, became the pro- 
perty of his wife, who took them to the traders, and with the avails made such 



9 

provision for him and the rest of the family as she could, he standing silently by 
not uttering one word. The women, old men, and boys, cultivated the little patch 
of corn and gathered the fuel. The warrior fights the battles of his nation, pro- 
vides the meat for his lodge, and hunts the fur bearing animals to purchase what 
perhaps he calls luxuries. " In the lodge he is a mild considerate man, of the non- 
interfering and non-scolding species. He may, indeed, be looked upon rather as the 
guest of his wife, than what he is most unj ustly represented to be, her tyrant, and 
he is often only known as the lord of the lodge by the attention and respect which 
she shows to him. ' He is a man of few words. If her temper is ruffled he smiles. 
If he is displeased he walks away . It is a province in which his actions acknow- 
ledge her right to rule ; and it is one in which his pride and manliness have exalted 
him above the folly of altercation."* The wife owned all the property; arms only 
belonged to the husband ; the family was hers, and when war or the chase had 
made the father its victim, she who had always been its head kept it unbroken. 
The hazards the men must encounter were such as to render it but a prudential 
measure, that the women should be the owners of the family property. The divi- 
sions of labor, power and consequence, are easily traced to the sources they grew 
out of, and were necessary to the condition of the people. The ferocity of the 
savage was strangely united with a deference for woman, not surpassed by the 
knights of the days of Richard Coeur de Lion; but space cannot be given to a full 
investigation of the inner life of this people. We must proceed to the narration of 
their history since they have come in contact with Europeans. 

The central tribe was the seat of government, and here all the general councils 
were held, and all the policj'' of the nation settled. The first we know of this 
people they here swayed the sceptre of an empire twelve hundred miles long and 
eight hundred wide. The means of free and rapid transportation of armies was 
to these savages of the same advantage that it is to the most artificial state of 
society. Around the shores of Onondaga lake the councils deliberated, and when 
once the plan of the campaign was arranged, the canoes were afloat, and soon far 
down the St. Lawrence the Adirondac heard the war whoop of the " men of the 
mountain. "f Or on the banks of the Georgian bay the trembling Huron felt the 
weight of their power. Or launching their barks on the head waters of the Susque- 
hanna, soon on the shores of the Chesapeake bay they dictated terms to their 
enemies. Then- power was felt and acknowledged as far south as the country of 
the Cherokees. Fort Hill, in South Carolina, afterwards the residence of John C. 
Calhoun, was one of their stations, from which they waged inveterate war against 
the Catawbas and Cherokees. 

The Iroquois nation could bring to a battle field more than two thousand war- 
riors of their own blood, besides their levies from the tribes they had subjected. 
Their policy in regard to conquered enemies was like that of ancient Rome; they 
were converted into allies raxher than slaves, and having been fairly conquered in 
war, after a brave resistance, they were counted as younger brothers, worthy to 
fight by the side of their conquerors, and partake of their glory. Thus the con- 
federacy grew until it dictated the policy of all that part of the continent that 
reaches fi-om the Hudson river to beyond the Mississippi. With the Iroquois war 
was the business of life, and the pursuit of an enemy on the war path, or hunting 
the wild beasts of the forest, were the only employments that men could engage in 
without subjecting them to the loss of rank, and the liability of being called 
women. " They reduced war to a science, and all their movements were directed 
by system and policy. They never attacked a hostile country until they had sent 

* Sehoolcraft. f Meaning of the word " Onondaga." 

2 



10 

out spies to explore and designate its vulnerable points, and when they encamped 
they observed the greatest circumspection to guard against surprise. Whatever 
superiority of force they might have, they never neglected the use of stratagem; 
they employed all the crafty wiles of the Oarthagenians. The cunning of the fox, 
the ferocity of the tiger, and the power of the lion, were united in their conduct. 
They preferred to vanquish their enemy by taking him off his guard, by involving 
him in an ambuscade, or by falling upon him in the hour of sleep ; but when emer- 
gencies rendered it necessary for them to face him on the open field of battle, they 
exhibited a courage and contempt of death which has never been surpassed. Like 
other savage nations they delighted in cruelty. To produce death by the most 
protracted sufferings was sanctioned by general and immemorial usage."* 

The Europeans, instead of teachmg mercy to these men, encouraged and fostered 
the worst points in their characters, and by every temptation they were led on to 
become even more cruel, as they became demoralized and vicious by intercourse 
with the more learned and less principled " pale face." Massachusetts gave, first 
twelve, then forty, and finally one hundred pounds for a scalp. The Colonial 
Legislature of New York, in 1745, passed an act for giving a reward for scalps, 
and in 1746 a governor of the colony not only paid for two scalps of Frenchmen 
in money and fine clothes, but thanked the three Indians that brought them to 
Albany, and promised to " always remember this act of friendship."* 

When the French first commenced the settlement of Canada in 1603, they found 
the Adirondack Indians settled, where Quebec stands, to which place they had 
been driven from their former homes by the Iroquois. Mons. Champlain, the 
governor, joined the Adirondacks with his Frenchmen to invade the country of the 
Iroquois. On the lake which now bears his name, Champlain met two hundred 
of them; both sides went on shore for the battle, and then, for the first time, the 
sound of musketry was heard by the Iroquois. Defeat followed, and wondering 
and dismayed by the murderous effects of the new weapon, they retreated to their 
fastnesses in the wilderness. This was their first interview with white men, and 
their first knowledge of them was obtained by meeting them as enemies in a battle, 
where they turned the scale against a people with whom they certainly had no 
pretense of a quarrel. This affair is supposed to have occurred in 1609. f 

The next the Onondagas saw of Europeans was on the 9th of October, 1610. A 
fishing party on their way to Oneida lake, were surprised by a company of Adi- 
rondacks and French under Champlain. These invaders had made their way up 
the St. Lawrence to the lower end of Lake Ontario, where hiding their canoes, they 
struck across the wilderness on foot. They took captive of the Onondagas, 
"three men,,four women, three boys and a girl." They then marched forward, 
and says Champlain in his account, on the 10th of October, at 3 P. M., " we 
arrived before the fort of the enemy. When I approached with my little detach- 
ment, we showed them what they had never before seen or heard. As soon as 
they saw us, and heard the balls whistling about their ears, they retired quietly 
within their fort, carrying with them their killed and wounded. We also fell back 
upon the main body, having five or six wounded, one of whom died."t 

Mons. Champlain, governor of Canada, representative not only of a great 
monarchy, but of Christianity, what moves you to this wanton attack on a people 
of whom you know nothing, except what you hear from their enemies, and with 
whom you certainly have no cause of quarrel ? This act of wanton injustice will 
return upon you and the nation you represent. 

* Clinton. f Clark's Onondaga. 



11 

After a six day's seige, this mighty governor general, in the midst of his French 
and Indians, wounded in two places by Onondaga arrows, is ingloriously retreat- 
ing, carried in a " basket of wicker work, so doubled up and fastened with cords 
that he was unable to move." A long and dreary winter is passed by Champlain 
among the Hurons before he can get back to Quebec; but the war he has com- 
menced will only end with the extinction of the French power in Canada. Truces 
will be made: they are but armistices of short continuance. The Iroquois will 
be seen, armed with powder and ball, by the Dutch and English, on every battle 
field henceforth, until on the plains of Abraham, Onondaga chieftains will shed 
their blood as freely as Wolfe, while vengeance is glutted. 

In the events that immediately ensued, we follow Bancroft, using his language 
when most convenient: " Thrice did Champlain invade their country, until he was 
driven with disgrace from their wilderness. The Five Nations in return attempted 
the destruction of New France. Though repulsed, they continued to defy the 
province and its allies, and under the eyes of its governor openly intercepted con- 
voys destined for Quebec. The French authority was not confirmed by founding 
a feeble outpost at Montreal; and Fort Richelieu, at the mouth of the Sorel river, 
scarcely protected its immediate environs. The Iroquois warriors scoured every 
wilderness to lay it still more waste. Depopulating the whole country on the 
Ontario, they obtained an acknowledged superiority over New France. The colony 
was in perpetual danger, and Quebec itself was beseiged." From these straits the 
French sought to relieve themselves by the assistance of missionaries, of a religion 
whose precepts they had so wantonly violated, and in 1646 " Father Joque, com- 
missioned as an envoy, was hospitably received by the Mohawks, and gained an 
opportunity of offering the friendship of France to the Onondagas." The first 
Frenchman came with the sword, the second with the cross. 

The history of the actions of the Jesuit missionaries among these tribes, is but 
a constant repetition of ennobling examples of disinterested, self-sacrificing devo- 
tion to the great cause of leading the barbarians to the cross. No hardship was 
too great, no suffering too severe, martyrdom itself was received willingly; and 
when one was consumed by the fires of the savages, another stood ready to take 
his place. 

The Iroquois were satisfied with blood, and desired rest. Peace was concluded, 
and in 1654 Father Le Moine appeared as an envoy to the Onondagas, to ratify 
there the treaty Chaumonot and Claude Dablon followed in 1655. They were 
" hospitably welcomed at Onondaga; at once a chapel sprung into existence, and 
by the zeal of the natives was finished in a day, and there, in the heart of New 
York, the solemn services of the Roman church were chanted as securely as in any 
part of Christendom." 

This happy state of things was interrupted by an attempt on the part of the 
French to estalish a colony. May 7th, 1656, a company of fifty Frenchmen embark- 
ed for Onondaga, making a home on the shores of the lake, and encountering the 
forest with the ax, suffered from fever before they could prepare their tenements. 
Border collisions ensued; the Oneidas murdered three Frenchmen, and the French, 
retaliated by seizing Iroquois. At last, when a conspiracy was formed in the 
tribe of the Onondagas, the French, having vainly solicited re-enforcements, aban- 
doned their chapel, their cabins and their hearths, in Onondaga, and their settle- 
ments in the valley of the Oswego. The Mohawks compelled Le Moine to return, 
and the French and Iroquois were, in 1659, once more at war." 

" The harvests of New France could not be gathered in safety, the convents 
were insecure, many of the inhabitante prepared to return to France. In moments 



12 

of gloom it seemed as if all must be abandoned. True, religious zeal was Still 
active. Le Moine once more appeared among the Five Nations, was received with 
affection at Onondaga," and peace followed. 

The New Netherlands became the property of England, and then commenced 
negotiations to procure the friendship of these savages of the interior. England 
and France for twenty -five years sued with uncertain success, " yet afterwards in 
the grand division between parties throughout the world, the Bourbons found in 
them implacable opponents." In 1684, the Five Nations met the governor of New 
York at Albany, and the Sachems returned, to nail the arms of the Duke of York 
over their castles, a protection, as they thought, against the French, an acknowledg- 
ment, as the English deemed, of British sovereignty." 

The Governor of Canada, meantime, "with six hundred French soldiers, four 
hundred Indian allies, four hundred canoes, and three hundred men for a garrison," 
started for Onondaga; but the army suffered by sickness, and after arriving on 
the soil of the Onondagas, he was constrained to ask for peace. The English 
desired the Five Nations to take advantage of the condition of the French and 
exterminate them; but this was not the policy of the Indians; they did not desire 
to entirely ruin the French, and thereby entirely relieve the English from them, 
but rather to play one party off against the other, while they kept to themselves 
the balance of power. They had, by this time, come to think that it would not 
be wise for them to be entirely in the power of any race of white men. 

The interference of the English Avas resented, and an Onondaga chief proudly 
exclaimed to the envoy of New York, ' ' Onondio (the French Governor) has for 
ten years been our father; Corlear (the English governor) has long been our 
brother, but it is because we have willed it so; neither the one or the other is our 
master; He who made the world gave us the land in which we dwell; Ave are free; 
you call us subjects; we say we are brethren; we must take care of ourselves; I 
will go to my father, for he has come to my gate, and desires to speak words of 
reason; we will embrace peace instead of war; the ax shall be thrown into a deep 
w^ater." 

Ilaaskouaun, the chief, said to De la Barre, the French commander: " It is well 
for you that 3''ou have left under ground the hatchet which has so often been dyed 
in the blood of the French; our children and old -men had carried their bows and 
arrows into the heart of your camp, if our braves had not kept them back; our 
old men are not afraid of war; we will guide the English to our lakes; we are 
bom free; we depend neither on Onondio nor Corlear." Dismayed the proud 
governor of Canada accepted a disgraceful peace, abandoning his Indian allies to 
the tender mercies of the Iroquois. 

This conduct of the Iroquois, in allowing a large army to depart in peace, that 
had invaded their country to destroy it, and that had fallen completely in their 
povrer, certainly deserved some grateful remembrance from the French nation. 
We shall soon see how this act of mercy was returned. 

In 1686, the French established a fort at Niagara; this gave great dissatisfaction 
to the English, for it was within the country of the Iroquois, and as against 
France, England claimed to be the owner of all their territory. The French, fol- 
lowing the European rule, claimed all the country drained by the St. Lawrence as 
their propert}^ by right of discovery, and occupancy of the mouth of the river. 

The establishment of Fort Niagara was therefore a matter of great importance 
to both these nations, claiming land to which neither had any valid title. This 
was the beginning of the contest between these parties for territory in the west. 
The boundary line between them never Avas settled, but for the present the Five 



18 

Nations vrcre a barrier that kept apart the two competitors, who were striving for 
the dominion of the continent.* 

In .1G84, De la Barre had been mercifully allowed to withdraw his sickly army 
away from the valley of the Oswego. Now for the return of French gratitude. 
Louis XIV. writes to the governor of New France: "the welfare of my service 
requires that the number of the Iroquois should be diminished as much as possi- 
ble. They are strong and robust, and can be made useful as galley slaves. Do 
what you can to take a large number of them prisoners of war, and ship them to 
France." By open hostilities no captures could be made; and Lamberville, the 
missionary among the Onondagas, was unconsciously employed to decoy the Iro- 
quois chiefs into the fort on Ontario. Invited to negotiate a treaty, they assemble 
without distrust, are surprised, put in irons, hurried to Quebec, and thence to 
France, where the warrior hunters of the Five Nrtions, Avho used to roam from 
Hudson's Bay to Carolina, were chained to the oar in the galleys of Marseilles.' 
This was in 1687.t 

What will the outraged Iroquois do with this missionary, the unwitting tool of 
tyrants.' The narration continues: "Meantime the old men of the Onondagas 
summoned Lamberville to their presence. 'We have much reason,' said an aged 
cliief, ' to treat thee as an enemy, but we know thee too well ; thou hast betrayed 
us, but treason was not in thy heart; fly, therefore, for when our young braves 
shall have sung their war song, they will listen to no voice but the swelling voice 
of their anger." Trusty guides conducted the missionary through by paths into 
a place of security. This noble forbearance was due to the counsel of Garonkonthe. 
Generous barbarian ! exclaims Bancroft, your honor shall endure, if words of 
mine can preserve the memory of your deeds. § This generosity was not suggested 
by fear, but grew out of love of justice. The innocent instrument of the wrong 
must not suffer for his sin of ignorance, but vengeance must be visited on the 
really guilty. Haaskouaun advances with five hundred warriors to dictate terms 
of satisfaction. " I have always loved the French," said the proud chieftain to 
the foes he scorned; " our warriors proposed to come and burn your forts, your 
houses, your granges, and your corn, to weaken you by famine, and then to over- 
whelm you. I am come to tell Onondio he can escape this misery, if within four 
days he agreCvS to the restoration of the chiefs and spoils, and the abandonraent 
of the fort at Niagara." Twelve hundred warriors are afloat on Lake St. Francis, 
and in two days they will be in Montreal. The haughty condescension of the 
chief was accepted, the restoration of the imprisoned chiefs conceded, and the whole 
country south of the lakes rescued from the dominion of Canada. In the course 
of events New York owes its present northern boundary to this exhibition of 
the power and valor of the Five Nations. f All but a little corner of this county 
of Onondaga is drained into the St. Lawrence, and but for these Indians must have 
formed a part of Canada. 

M. de Nonville called an assembly of the chiefs of the Five Nations at Montreal. 
On their way they are waylaid by Adario, the great chief of the western tribes, 
and an ally to the French. The ambassadors, with their guard of forty warriors 
are surprised, and either killed in battle or made prisoners. They naturally sup- 
posed that Adario acted in accordance with French wishes; this opinion the wiley 
savage strengthens by charging the treachery directly on De Nonville ; dismissing 
his prisoners with presents, and threatening revenge for having been made a tool, 
the point is settled in the minds of the Iroquois, and vengeance follows. On the 
12th of July, 1688, twelve hundred warriors are before Montreal, the town is 

• Bancroft, vol. 2, p. 422. t Bancroft, vol. 2, p. 423. 

i Bancroft, vol. 2, p. 423. § Bancroft, vol. 2, p. 424. 



14 

burned and sacked, and over one thousand French lives are sacrificed.* The var 
went on until "none could plant or sow, or pass from one place to another with- 
out danger of being killed by a skulking foe." In 1691, Kan-ah-je-a-gah, at the 
head of his six hundred braves, "overran the country as the sweeping torrent 
does the lowly valley." 

This Kan-ah-je-a-gah, whom the English called " Black Kettle," was an 
Onondaga chief; he acted, in concert with Major Peter Schuyler, in 1690, at the 
head of his Mohawk and Onondaga followers, in resisting the French on the shores 
of Lake Champlain, and he defeated the French near Niagara; the next year he 
was in Canada. His successes so exasperated the governor, " that he caused a 
captive whom he had taken from the Indians to be put to death with the most 
excruciating tortures. The poor victim endured the infliction with stoical indiifer- 
ence, singing his achievements while they burned his feet and hands with hot irons, 
cut and wrung off his joints, pulled out his sinews, and to render the hellish 
tragedy complete, tore off his scalp and poured hot sand on his naked skull." This 
did not intimidate, but it awakened the vengeance of Kax-ah-je-a-gah, and the 
Senecas and Onondagas under his lead were soon on the war path. " They inter- 
cepted all trading parties from Montreal to the upper lakes, securing booty and 
carrying terror and dismay into the heart of the French colony. In 1692 he car- 
ried his arms to the very citadel of Montreal. He continued the war with success 
until 1697, when he was decoyed into Canada by the perfidy of the French, under 
the pretext of a desire to make peace. With about thirty of his warriors he was 
unexpectedly fallen up by a party of Algonkins, engaged by the French for the 
work. After he had received his death wound, he cried out: " Must I, who have 
made the whole earth tremble before me, now die by the hands of children ?"t 

The old French game; propose a conference and murder or make prisoners the 
embassadors. This was easier than to slay them in battle. Why after such expe- 
riences would the Indian trust to christian men's faith .'' It became a proverb 
among them that white men spoke with a "forked tongue." In more modern 
days Florida chiefs were made prisoners by trusting the words of one of our gene- 
rals. Thedastardly betrayal and death of Osceola are recorded in history to our 
nation's shame. 

The Indians have found all the civilized nations with which they have come in 
contact alike destitute of that truth that was one of the characteristics of the 
forest, and they have been unable to comprehend the treachery to which they have 
so often fallen victims. 

But to return to our narrative, as years rolled on the Iroquois became more and 
more friendly with the English, and from time to time received assistance in men 
and arms. 

In 1694, the great chief De-kan-is-so-ka visited Jlontreal to make peace with 
the French; he returned with the information that they would only make peace 
upon condition that they should be permitted to build a fort and keep a garrison at 
Cadaraqui (now Kingston), and that the English should not be encouraged to 
trade with the Canadian Indians, threatening the Five Nations with utter destruc- 
tion in case of their refusal of these terms. J 

Canada was then governed by Count de Frontenac, who resolved to put the 
whole power of the French in requisition, and by a decisive blow bring the Onon- 
dagas to terms. In 1696 he mustered the whole force that France could fiirnish, 
and that the province could raise, together with such Indian alUes as he could 

* Clark's Onondaga, vol. 1, p. 269. f Clark's Onondaga, vol. 1, p. 89. 

t Clark's Onondaga, vol. 1, p. 277. 



15 

enlist. On the 4th day of June the army embarked at La Chine, in boatf?, and 
commenced the long journey. Four battalions of regulars and four of militia, with 
the vast army of Indians, made their toilsome ascent of the river St. Lawrence, 
coasted along the shores of Lake Ontario, and then ascended the Oswego. Nearly 
two months were thus consumed, and it was not until the second day of August 
that the flotilla was on Lake Oh-nen-ta-ha (Onondaga).* 

Hoffman says of this army, that "banners were there which had been unfurled 
at Steenkerk and Landen, and rustled above the troops that Luxemburgh's trum- 
pets had guided to glor}"^, when Prince Waldeck's legions were borne down beneath 
his furious charge. Nor was the enemy this gallant host was seeking unworthy 
those whose swords had been tried in some of the hardest fought fields of Europe. 
They had bearded a European army under the walls of Quebec, shut up another 
for weeks within the defences of Montreal, with the same courage which half a 
century after vanquished the battalions of Dieskau on the shores of Lake George."! 

The French, with their allies, passed through the lake in two divisions, skirting 
both shores, and finally landed at the east end, sword in hand. On the 3d of 
August they constructed a fort, and left a garrison of 140 men to guard their bat- 
teaux and baggage. This fort was probably at the place now called Green Point, as 
the next day the French account says "inconceivable difficulty was experienced in 
moving the cannon and the remainder of the artillery equipments over marshes, 
and twoj pretty considerable rivers which it was necessary to traverse." They 
encamped the next night at the place of the Salt Springs. This French army had 
been observed by scouts, and all its movements and its force were well known at 
the Onondaga villages. No assistance could be had from the English, and resist- 
ance was idle to the vast army that, with well supplied artillery, was now before 
them. The Onondagas resolved to bend before the storm they could not face. On 
the night of the 2d of August, the French saw the light of immense fires in the 
south. The Indians were destroying their own property, preferring this mode of 
defence to direct resistance. When the French arrived on the ground, Frontenac 
says they found "the cabins of the Indians, and the triple palasades which encir- 
cled the fort, entirely burnt. It has since been learned that it was in a suflSciently 
strong state of defence. It was an oblong, flanked by four regular bastions. The 
two row of pickets which touched each other were of the thickness of an ordinary 
mast, and at six feet distance outside stood another palisade of much smaller 
dimensions, but from forty to fifty feet high." 

The 7th, 8th and 9th days of August were spent by the French in destroying 
the young and growing corn. " The grain was so forward that the stalks were 
very easily cut with the sword and sabre, without the least tear that any could 
start again. Not a single head remained. The fields stretched from a league and 
a half to two leagues from the fort. The destruction was complete." The fort 
and immense fields of corn thus described by Frontenac, give us a higher opinion 
of the power of these savages than we had been wont to entertain. 

This sacrifice of house and food the Onondagas could submit to, though at great 
inconvenience and suffering; but they must, in accordance with their customs, give 
due notice to the enemy that vengeance would not be delayed. 

A brave old warrior volunteered for this honorable duty. He was more than a 
hundred years old. For the period of three ordinary generations of men he had 
followed the war path. He was of man's estate when Champlain first invaded his 
country with fire arms and the sword, and ever since he had nursed his wrath, 

• Doc- History, vol. 1, p. 212. f Clark's Onondaga, vol. 1, p. 280. 

X Mud and £ear Creeks, now both running in one artificial channel. 



16 

and glutted his vengeanccj and now that he could no longer take on himself the 
toils and hardships of active war, he would show these pale faces how to diq. 
Frontenac says, " he had no doubt prepared himself, during his long life, to die 
with firmness, however cruel the tortures he should have to endure. Not the 
slightest complaint escaped his lips. On the contrary, he exhorted those who tor- 
mented him to remember his death, and to display the same courage when those of 
his nation should take vengeance on them; and when a savage, weary of his har- 
rangues, gave him some cuts of a knife, " I thank thee," he cried, " but thou 
oughtest to complete my death by fire. Learn, French dogs and ye savages, their 
allies, that ye are dogs of dogs; remember what ye ought to do when ye will be in 
the same position that I am." It was, says Charlevoix, "a strange and curious 
spectacle, to see many hundred men surrounding a decrepit old warrior, striving 
in vain, by tortures, to draw a groan from him." 

A detachment of the French visited the Oneidas and destroyed their crops, 
takino- thirty prisoners, among them the principal chiefs, Who vainly tried to make 
peace. The only terms the French would grant them, were removal to Canada 
and submission to the conqueror. 

This barren victory of Frontenac resulted in great injury to the French, as by 
taking the Canadian militia from their fields in July and August, a famine ensued, 
that pinched quite as hard as the lack of provisions in Onondaga. As the French 
withdrew from the valley of the Oswego, the Indians hovered on their line, and 
cut off every straggling canoe, and in the whole affair the only man the Onondagas 
lost was the volunteer victim that remained in their burnt village. Thus ended 
this most formidable invasion. 

Soon after, a party of the Five Nations was surprised by the French, several 
were killed, and one taken prisoner, who was publicly burned alive, and upon 
whom the Indians then trading at Montreal were invited to feast.* 

The treaty of Ryswick, which made peace between the English and French, was 
signed September 10, 1697. 

The governor of Canada, believing that the Five Nations thought that the gene- 
ral peace made them secure, resolved to take his last revenge, and he sent a party 
of Adirondacks to destroy a party of the Iroquois, who, in faith of the treaty, 
were hunting near Fort Cadaraqui. Several were killed on both sides. Soon after 
this, French commissioners appeared before the Onondaga castle. Peace was made 
to the great satisfaction of the French. " Nothing could be more terrible than this 
last war; the French ate their bread in continual fear. No man was sure, when 
43ut of his house, of ever returning to it again. All business and trade was often 
suspended, while fear, despair and misery blanched the countenances of the 
wretched inhabitants."* 

The commissioners took with them to Montreal several of the Onondaga chiefs- 
They were received Avith every mark of respect, having awarded to them that con- 
sideration that brave men always command. 

The prisoners that the Iroquois had taken were now free; some of them loved 
their new friends too well to leave them, and some who did return to Canada, 
came back and ended their days in Onondaga. The individual Frenchman and the 
Iroquois found little difficulty in harmonizing. The policy of the French rulers 
prevented this harmony and friendship from becoming national. 

Thus ended the war commenced by Champlain's invasion in 1609; so far at 
least as it was carried on by the Five Nations in their sovereign capacity. The 
English had been their allies, and were fast becoming their masters, not by levying 

* Cla)fk'8 Onondaga, vol. 1, p. 283. f Clark's Onondaga. 



17 

war, but, first, by assistance against common enemies, and then by negotiation 
and the arts of peace. From this time they recognized themselres as subjects of 
Great Britain, and were at war or peace as suited the policy of the governing 
nation. 

In 1700, Robert Livingston, Secretary of Indian Affairs, visited Onondaga, and 
reported to the Earl of Belmont upon the proper policy for the English to adopt 
in regard to the Five Nations. He advised that Missionaries should be sent among 
them, and that forts should be constructed and garrisoned for their protection 
against the French. He proposed to locate one at the confluence Of the Oneida and 
Seneca rivers. 

The Indians represented to Col. Schuyler, Mr. Livingston and Mr. Hanse, that 
the " governor of Canada had charged them not to hearken to Corlear, for if they 
did so, he would take them off by poison.'. June 21, 1700. l)ekannissora, at the 
head of an embassy, is in Albany, complaining that the French will not " take 
the hatchet from their hands" unless the Five Nations submit to them; and he 
said, " all of us here are resolved to have a protestant minister at Onondaga, the 
centre of the Five Nations, as soon as one can be sent to us." The governor pro- 
mised the missionary, and that the Bible should be translated for their use, and 
proposed that they should send two or three of their sons to be educated at the 
expense of the king. The Indians replied that they loved the king, and were 
determined to continue firm to him and to his religion, saying that they had refused 
to receive the Jesuit priests; as to the offer to educate the boys, said the chief, 
"that is a subject not under our control; it belongs to the wotoen entirely." 
They also asked that a smith might be sent among them. Forts were erected in 
their country, and the bonds of friendship were made strong.* Time rolls on, the 
bonds growing stronger with the years. On the 19th day of April, 1710, five of 
the principal chiefs who had been sent to England, were "conducted in splendid 
coaches to St. James palace, and the Lord Chamberlain, with much ceremony, 
introduced them into the royal presence;" atid Queen Anne listened to a speech 
from one of their number. Thus she acquired their love, and when, in 1714, she 
died, her faithful subjects in the wilderness of New York sincerely lamented her. 

The defence of the English fort at Oswego Was entrusted to the Onondagas. 
When Sir William Johnson called for them they Were ready, and assisted in win- 
ning the glory he acquired; and when the question of empire Was decided between 
the great powers before Quebec, they Were there. During the wars in which 
Washington won his first renown, these Five Nations of Indians kept the French 
from the northern frontier of Pennsylvania and Virginia, and forced them to make 
their attacks from the west. Situated, as were the Iroquois, on waters that run 
in four directions : east and West in Oneida, and north and south in Onondaga; 
animated, as they were, by an unconquerable love of adventure and conquest, they 
held the balance of power among the aboriginal tribes, and when two mighty 
nations ot another race met on their territory, the party that secured their friend- 
ship, as might have been expected, triumphed. 

Afterwards, when England found herself at war with her own colonies, thfese 
children of the forest did not desert her, but nearly all of them were most loyal 
and devoted. Mr. Clinton says, that in the war of the revolution, the Five 
Nations contributed to the aid of the British one thousand five hundred and eighty 
men. " They hung like the scythe of death upon the rear of our settlements, and 
their deeds are inscribed, with the scalping knife and tomahawk, in characters of 
blood, on the fields of Wyoming and Cherry Valley, and on the banks of the 
Mohawk." 

• Clark's Onondaga, vol. 1, p. Jt91, 



18 

The chastisement that we inflicted on the Five Nations was terrible as their own 
cruelties had invoked. On the 21st of April, 1779, Colonel Van Schaick surprised ! 
the Onondagas, and destroyed their village, provisions and munitions of war, 
killing twelve and taking thirty -four prisoners. The destruction of their property 
was complete. The same year the campaigns of Sullivan carried war and famine 
to the Senecas and Cayugas, effectually breaking the power of the Iroquois.* The 
Mohawks fled to Canada with Sir John Johnson. 

The treaty of peace with England gave us the chain of the great lakes as our 
northern boundary ; no stipulation whatever was made in regard to these tribes, 
they consequently found themselves in the condition of a conquered people, entirely 
at the mercy of enemies, who had become highly exasperated by their dreadful 
cruelties. The Legislature of New York evinced a disposition to expel them from 
all their territory; but the humane counsels of Generals Washington and Schuyler 
saved them from total ruin.* The treaty made at Fort Stanwix, in 1784, by com- 
missioners of the government, and the Indians secured sufficient reservations of 
land to all the Iroquois, except the Mohawks, who had gone to Canada. But this 
treaty appeared hard to the Indians, who had gone into the war at the command 
of a government that they felt bound to obey, and that had so shamefully neglected 
them in the final settlement. Some of them joined the western Indians, and took 
part in the wars that folio v>^ed the revolution; but after the defeat they suffered at 
the hands of Wayne's army, they returned to their homes in " submission and 
humiliation." 

A generation passed away, and again the people of the United States were at war 
with England. The old chiefs had mostly died, and the young men had grown up 
with feelings of attachment to their immediate neighbors, who experience had 
taught them w^ere friends. The Enghsh, according to their custom, had employed 
such Indians as could be induced to fight for them, and our Niagara frontier 
became the scene of contests in which the scalping knife played its part. General 
Peter B. Porter called on the remnants of this people for a force that might be 
opposed with success to the Canada Indians. A council was held, to which all the 
tribes were invited, and all but the Mohawks came. It was resolved to aid the 
United States with all their force. By ancient usage the Mohawks were to furnish 
the commander-in-chief, but they having left the confederacy, it was necessary to 
depart from the usage, and elect one in general council. Debates ran high, until 
the celebrated Sagotawatha (Bed Jacket) settled the matter, by proposing 
HoH-A-HOA-QUA (La Fort), an Onondaga chieftain. He accepted the post, and 
died at Chippewa, having received his death wound while bravely leading his 
people. His dying words were expressive of his gratification at having been placed 
at the head of his nation, and having done his duty there. The braves of the 
Onondagas gathered around the prostrate hero, and exclaimed in their own lan- 
guage, " Alas, great chief ! the brave ! the brave !"t 

Thus has been traced the history of this extraordinary people; once as truthful, 
as brave, as proud a race as ever lived, now reduced to a mere remnant, acquiring 
the vices of other men, to be added to their own. A few brood over the traditions 
of a greatness forever gone, while most of them have become farmers, and aided 
by a school and missionary effort, are gradually adapting themselves to the habits 
of the whites. In the Onondaga Valley they have a tract of land large enough to 
abundantly supply all their wants, and whenever they shall cultivate it themselves, 
instead of leasing to others, they will become rich. 

• Clark's Onondaga. 

\ Webster received his dying words while acting ae aid to Gen. Brown, to carry orders to 
the Indians, he underst nding the language. 



19 

The statistics of their agriculture will appear with those of the towns of the 
county. 

ANTIQUITIES. 

The whole space allowed for this paper would not be sufficient for a full investi- 
gation and discussion of all the objects of interest connected with the past occu- 
pancy of this county. A very brief account only can be attempted. As long ago 
as 1810 or '11, De Witt Clinton visited the town of Pompey, and gave an account 
of antiquarian remains. Mr. Clark, in his history of Onondaga county, and Mr. 
Schoolcraft, in his report, have each given a much more extended notice of the 
various forts and other objects of interest, accompanied with drawings, than would 
be admissible here. To these works, therefore, those persons whose curiosity 
demands more than will be found in this report are referred. 

Three different nations supplied early visitors to this section of country, the 
Spanish, French and Dutch, and each of them have left behind them some traces 
of their visits. We have no knowledge of any European having visited this 
countrjr previous to the invasion of Champlain in 1610 j but Mexico was conquered 
nearly a hundred years before, and the Spanish thirst for the precious metals may 
have led parties as far into the interior as Onondaga. The Portuguese had explored 
nearly the whole of the coast of North America in 1501, and the French fished on 
the banks of Newfoundland as early as 1505.* Some parties may have visited 
this region early in the sixteenth century. However this may be, there was picked 
up in Pompey, about the year 1820, a stone, that may now be found in Albany, 
where it was placed under the care of the late Doctor T. Romeyn Beck, that 
appeared to have been used as a grave stone, to mark the place of interment of 
some European. On its centre is engraved rudely the figure of a tree, with a ser- 
pent coiled around it, with the words and figures Leo De Lon, VI., 1520. This is 
the only relic that has been found that may not be easily accounted for, as having 
been connected with some of the traders and missionaries that visited the Onon- 
dagas after Champlain's invasion. 

The Dutch cultivated trade with the Indians, and at an early day made long 
journej^s into their territories to exchange merchandize for furS. Thej carried fire 
arms to use and to sell, and their safety demanded the erection of such forts or 
strong places as we see have once existed here. The French, too, during the truces 
in the war with the Indians, strove with great energy to secure a foothold among 
them. The metalic implements, guns, .swords, hatchets, locks, bells, horse shoes, 
hammers, beads, medals, crucifixes, brass kettles, pewter plates, blacksmith's 
tools, and other like relics that have from time to time been dug up, were in all 
probability brought here by traders and missionaries. The circular and elliptical 
works found here have already been ascribed to wars that once were waged 
between the different tribes. There is nothing of all the curious antiquities found 
here, except the stone having the date 1520, that leads us to suppose that this 
country had been at any time visited by Europeans before 1610; but we may very 
readily believe that we have but a meagre history of the various parties that for 
one purpose or another came here after that date, and before the regular settlement 
by the present occupants. 

• Clark's Onondaga, vol. 2, p. 266. 



20 



CHAPTER i. 

TOPOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ONONDAGA COUNTY. 

The county of Onondaga, is nearly in the geographical center of the 
State. The Court House, in the city of Syracuse, is in latitude forty-three 
degrees three minutes north, and longitude seventy-six degrees fourteen 
minutes and four seconds west from Greenwich, or no degrees forty-eight 
minutes eleven seconds, east from the observatory in Washington, as nearly 
as can be determined without too much inconvenience, and near enough for 
any purpose of this report. The cily of Syracuse is very nearly in the 
Center of the county, which is bounded on the north, by Oswego ceunty; 
on the east, by Madison j on the south, by Cortland ; and oti the west, by 
Cayuga. 

The general form of the county is a rectangular parallelogram, having its 
lines east and west, and north and south j the north-east corner being some- 
what rounded off by Oneida lake, and the south-west by Skancateles lake. 
From north to south the average width is thirty miles ; and from east to 
west twenty-six. The area of the county, exclusive of lakes, is in acres, 
459,229, of which there were, in 1855, of improved land, 344,528, and of 
unimproved 114,701. 

The county is now divided into the towns of Lysander, Clay, Cicero, 
Elbridge, Van Buren, Salina, DeWitt, Manlius, Camillus, Geddes, Skane- 
ateles, Marcellus, Onondaga, Pompey, Spafford, Otisco, La Fayette, Tully, 
and Fabius, and the city of Syracuse. 

Most of the surface of this county slopes to the north, and is drained 
into the river St. Lawrence, but the summit of the highlands that divid-e 
the waters that flow north from those that run south, and find their way 
by the Susquehanna river to the sea, is within this county, though near 
the south bounds ; but a small part of the Whole area being drained to the 
south, and that chiefly in the towns of Fabius and Tully. 

About two-fifths of the whole surface of the county is flat and barely 
rolling enough to permit drainage. This fiat land constitutes a part of 
what is known as the "great level," which extends along the south side 
of Oneida lake, to the base of the slope of the spurs of the Allegany 
mountains. The Erie canal runs along the south side of this level land. 
That part of the county lying south of the canal, constituting about three* 
fifths of the whole , is embraced within the northernmost spurs of the moun* 
tain ranges, and partakes of the characteristics that belong to such coun* 
tries ; being uneven and comparatively broken in its surface. A traveler 
crossing Onondaga county from east to west, or from west to east, if his 
route is on the plain north of the highlands, will meet only slight hills and 
hollows, or rather mere undulations crossing his course, and streams that 
have their surfaces nearly level with the surrounding land. But if his 



• 21 

route is across the line of the hill slope, he will descend into deep valleys, 
whose dividing ridges are many miles apart, and he will have one constant 
succession of toilsome descents and ascents, enlivened and rendered plea- 
sant, by ever-recurring points of observation, from which the most splen- 
did scenery lies pictured before him. Hill side, mountain top, wide val- 
leys, lakes framed with forests and fields of living green, meet his gaze 
from the top of every eminence he passes. If he sees little of the grand- 
eur of rock-ribbed mountains, he is delighted with landscapes, more mild, 
and of a softer tone, and that bespeak more fitting residences for men, and 
he is delighted with the reflection, that of all he sees, there is nought but 
that combines the useful with the beautiful. 

The slope of the highlands is divided into five distinct ridges, all having 
a general north and south direction. The' most eastern of them enters the 
town of Manlius, from the east, and extends north to the Erie canal. The 
second ridge lies between Limestone and Butternut creeks, and makes the 
highlands of Pompey ; a part of those of Manlius, Lafayette and DeWitt. 
The third range, between Eutternut and Onondaga creeks, comprises the 
highlands of the central part of Lafayette, the west part of DeWitt, and 
the east portions of Tully and Onondaga, and extends to the city of Syra- 
cuse. The fourth range, between Onondaga and nine mile creeks, com- 
prises the highlands of Otisco, the west part of Tully, Lafayette and Onon- 
daga, and the east parts of Marcellus and Camillus. The fifth range 
lying between Nine mile and Skaneateles creeks, and Otisco and Skaneateles 
lakes, comprises the highlands of Spafi"ord, the west parts of Marcellus 
and Camillus, and the east parts of Skaneateles and Elbridge. The sum- 
mits of the valleys, between these ranges, are in the towns of Pon^ey, 
Fabius and Tully, or south of the county line. The highest peaks of the 
ranges of hills are in Spafi'ord, Pompey, Oiisco and Lafayette. The 
streams that drain these valleys to the south, are the head branches of the 
Tioughnioga river, one of the tributaries of the Susquehanna. Limestone 
and Butternut creeks unite their waters, and then flow into the Chitte- 
nango, a few miles before that stream enters Oneida lake. Onondafi^a 
and Nine mile creeks run into Onondaga lake. The Skaneateles crosses 
into Cayuga county, just before it discharges its waters into the Seneca 
river. Seneca river enters the west part of the county from Cross lake, 
flowing between the towns of Elbridge and Lysander, and along the north 
bounds of Van Buren and Geddes, to within less than half a mile of Onon- 
daga lake, where it receives the outlet of that body of water, then turning 
north, it runs along the west line of Clay, to Three River Point, where it 
receives the Oneida river. At this place the combined waters take the 
name of Oswego river, which empties into lake Ontario, in the city of 
Oswego. 

These various streams and bodies of water, with their tributaries, are so 
evenly distributed over the surface, that the whole county is wonderfully 
well supplied with water for use, and power to drive machinery. Seneca 
river has a dam giving a fall at Baldwinsville, of seven feet, and another 



22 

at Phoenix, either of which would give sufficient power for a large man- 
ufacturing town. The several streams that flow through the valleys of the 
south part of the county, fall, on an average, not less than eight hundred 
feet ; after they are of sufficient size to be useful in driving machinery, 
and at the north-east corner of the county, the united waters of the But- 
ternut, Limestone and Chittenango make the valuable water power of 
Bridgeport. Many beautiful water falls are formed by the branches of the 
principal streams, as they flow down the sides of the ranges of hills to 
the vallies. The most noted of the cascades, is known as Pratt's Falls. 
Such is a general outline of the county of Onondaga. When it was first 
seen by the races of men who now cultivate its soil, and direct its vast 
industrial pursuits, it was covered with one dense forest of trees of gianti 
growth, excepting the few fields that the natives had subjected to their rude 
cultivation. 

SETTLEMENT BY THE WHITES. 

The first white man who made a permanent residence in Onondaga 
county, was Ephraim Webster. He had been a seldier in the Revolution, 
serving until the close of the war. It is supposed that, in his campaigns, 
he had become somewhat acquainted, and friendly, with that portion of the 
Oneidas that took our side in the contest. Webster first settled at Oris- 
kauy, in the character of a trader, and there learned the Indian language. 
From Oriskany, he made several excursions to Onondaga, became intimate 
with his new friends, and finally accepted their invitation to go among them 
to live. In 1786, accompanied by another trader of the name of Nu- 
kerk, ha opened his store on the east bank of Onondaga creek, near its 
mouth, aod there exposed, for sale, the little stock he had brought, by 
water, from Schenectady. Nukerk died the first summer; and in the 
fall Webster went to New York with his pack of furs, returning the next 
spring with more goods, and from this time became a permanent inhabi- 
tant of Onondaga. In the spring of 1787, two traders, Campbell and 
Maibee, followed Webster, and took up their residence at Onondaga 
Hollow. 

Ephraim Webster was a man , of adventure, and was possessed of a 
courage that never faltered. He found the Indians smarting under the 
defeats of the war, nearly stripped of their lands, subjugated, and depend- 
ent upon their conquerors for supplies that civilized men alone could fur- 
nish them. They had invited Webster to live with them, as a trader, and 
they had, unquestionably, as much confidence in him as they could have in 
any one of their masters, and yet his life was in hourly peril. Circum- 
stances, that would appear trivial to us, in the minds of untutored savages, 
were proof strong as Holy Writ, that he was plotting their injury. Again 
their confidence would be restored, by circumstances quite as trivial as 
those which first excited their unjust suspicions. 

An instance, illustrative of this, is related by Clark, as follows: "For 
some real or fancied wrong, he was judged worthy of death. He gave up 
all for lost, and fully made up his mind that his time had come. His 



23 

grave was dug, and be was told to prepare for immediate death. A large 
ring was formed around him ; his executioners, four in number, were 
appointed, and their positions taken ; four glittering tomahawks gleamed 
in the sunlight. A sturdy brave firmly held each of his hands, stretching 
his arms to their utmost extent. It was asked of him ( as is the custom ) 
if he had any request to make before he expired. He said, he only desired 
a cooling draught of water. 'None, none, none,' was the reply; he 
appealed to them in aflfecting tones, not to deny a friend this simple request. 
The venerable war chief, Ondi-ya-ka, stood forth, while the ready weapons 
were poised over his head. ' Hold !' said he, 'stay your hands, offend not 
the Great Spirit; let him drink one cup of water for the last time !' The 
eup was presented, while one hand was released by the Indian who held it. 
Webster took the cup, gracefully bowed his head, and most cordially drank 
the health of the chiefs, braves and warriors of the Onondaga nation. 
This maneuver was so unexpected, so appropriate, and done with so much 
grace and aboriginal naivete, so respectfully, and with so much coolness 
and gravity of demeanor, that with one voice they shouted, 'he is free! 
let him go, he is one of us ! ' He was free, and henceforth safe among 
them. He was too brave a man to be a traitor ; and having once fully 
gained the Indians' confidence, by conduct like this, nothing could shake 
it." 

Webster married an Indian woman; and from him, though by right of 
the female side, has descended the present A-to-tar-ho, or principal civil 
officer of the confederacy. After the death of his Indian wife, Webster 
married a white woman, and raised a considerable family, who inherited 
the lands given by the Indians to their father. 

Some years since, an interesting suit was tried in this county, brought 
by the half-Indian son, for these lands; but he was beaten. 

Webster was employed by our government from 1788 to 1794 in gaining 
information as to the conduct and purposes of the Western Indians, and 
gave full satisfaction to his employers. A mile square of land was given 
to him by the Indians, and the grant confirmed by the government. Web- 
• ster received the parting words of Hoh-a-hoa-qua, on the bloody field of 
Chippewa, and lived to the age of seventy-two, retaining the confidence 
both of the Indians and whites, having filled the offices of supervisor and 
justice of the peace of the town of Onondaga. 

The business of Webster m Onondaga was traffic, and though he was the 
first of our people who settled here, he was not the pioneer of the men who 
came to develop the resources of the soil ; this honor is due to Asa Dan- 
forth and Comfort Tyler. 

With the spring of 1788, the settlement, by the present race of men, in 
Onondaga commences. 

Danforth had been invited to Onondaga by Webster, who had received 
his hospitalities while hunting in Montgomery county, where Danforth then 
lived. Webster used his influence with the Indians to get their consent 
to Danforth's coming among them. This being obtained, early in May, 



24 

1788, Asa Danforth embarked with his family, household goods and tools, 
in two flat bottomed boats, from Montgomery county. Passing up the 
Mohawk, they made the Portage at Rome ; and thence through Oneida lake 
and river, around by Seneca river, and Onondaga lake, landing at the 
mouth of Onondaga creek, where they met Webster, Comfort Tyler, and 
Mr. D.'s son Asa, who had been sent across the country with the stock, 
had arrived in advance of the boats. Passing up the creek, the first set- 
tlement was made a little south of Onondaga Hollow, May 22, 1788. 

The Indians treated the family kindly, except when under the influence 
of intoxicating drinks, furnished them by two base men, who had found 
their way into the valley with that worst enemy of the Indians. The 
better part of the tribe called for aid from Danforth and Tyler to put an 
end to this traffic. The traders refused to desist, and offered a barrel of 
rum, and to every Indian a new knife and tomahawk, if they would drive 
Danforth and Tyler away ; the chiefs, however, gave them their protection, 
and the base ofi"er was rejected. 

In December, Major Danforth, visited with his wife, her old home in 
Massachusetts, and returned about the middle of March, 1789, the savages 
cordially welcoming them back. 

The opring was propitious, potatoes were brought from Whitestown for 
seed. Their own crops were put in, and the Indians prepared their lands; 
sowed and planted after the manner of the whites. Tyler and young Dan- 
forth went to Massachusetts, and when they returned, Mrs. Danforth had 
the pleasure of greeting a daughter-in-law, and Tyler had a wife to intro- 
duce. These were the first white women Mrs. D. had ever seen in Onon- 
daga. John Brown and family came with the two brides, and now it began 
to be felt that there was a goodly company to begin the contest with the 
forest. 

On the 14th of October, 1789, was born Amanda Danforth the first white 
child in Onondaga. She became the wife of the late Col. Phillips, and 
mother of Mrs. Peter Outwater. These were the pioneers in Agriculture, 
teaching the Indians, and laying the foundation of prosperity for us, them- 
selves enduring hardships innumerable ; their lives constanly in danger ; 
often in want of wholesome food ; and without medical attendance. These 
privations and trials bore especially hard on the women, but they bravely 
encountered them all. The nearest mill was seventy-five miles ofl', at Her- 
kimer. Corn was pounded in a hollow made in the top of a white oak 
stump. A half bushel at a time was put in, and the pestle, which was 
worked by a spring pole, cracked ijt into a condition fine enough to be used 
for food. Wheat could not be made fine enough in this "mill" for bread j 
though it could be used for puddings and the like, after the coarser parti- 
cles had been many times sifted out. In sickness, Herkimer flour was 
sparingly used, but soon a small hand mill was procured that would grind 
wheat. 

In 1792, Major Danforth erected the first saw mill in the county, on 
lamd he had previously bought, in the present town of De Witt ; the Major 



25 

himself bringing the saw on his shoulder from Utica, and the Indians the 
nails. The following year he built a grist mill by the side of his saw mill, 
one mile north of Jamesville, on the present site of Dunlop's Mills. 

There were no roads over which the bolts, stones, &c., could be brought, 
but all difficulties were overcome. A week was consumed in raising the 
building, men coming from as far as Utica, and living in bark cabins. 
They mustered sixty-four, including Indians. Abel Myrick was the mas- 
ter builder. t>--^o 

Asa Danforth was called by the white men " The father of the county;" 
by the Indians, Hat-e-col-hot-was, the man who plows the ground. Honor- 
able titles both. He was born at Worcester, Mass., July 6th, 1746, served 
at the battle of Lexington as captain, and through the war as major. In 
Onondaga he rose to the rank of major-general, and was called upon to fill 
most of the important civil offices of the county, — among them, judge of 
the county court, and Superintendent of the salt springs, — he was also State 
Senator for the western district. He spent more than thirty years of his 
life here, and died, universally lamented, in 1818. 

Comfort Tyler, who came with the Danforths, also performed an impor- 
tant part in our early history. He, too, was a soldier of the Eevolution. 
He was born in the town of Ashford, Connecticut, Feb. 22d, 1764. Soon 
after Danforth and Tyler's settlement at Onondaga Hollow, other families 
came and settled near them, — among them the Pattersons, Ten Broecks, 
Longstreets, Needhams, and others, — and the progress of the settlement 
was rapid. In 1794, the first post office was established at Onondaga Hol- 
low, Comfort Tyler being made postmaster. In the same year the county 
of Onondaga was erected, including within its boundaries all the coui.ties 
of Seneca, Cayuga, Cortland, and part of Tompkins and Oswego, besides 
its present territory. In 1796, the tract of land known as the Onondaga 
Reservation was surveyed and divided into two hundred and fifty acre lota. 
The first town meeting was held at Asa Danforth's house in 1798, he pre- 
siding, Ephraim Webster being chosen supervisor. 

A description of the settlement of the town of Onondaga has been given, 
because it was the first made in the county. For a brief aceount of the 
other towns, which would occupy too much space if given here, French's 
Gazetteer, for 1860, may be consulted ; and for a fuller narrative of the 
interesting events which transpired at those early periods, the reader is 
referred to Clark's Onondaga. A few words in reference to the founding 
of the city of Syracuse, and its present condition, will close the little we 
have to say of the early settlement. 

City op Syracuse. — In 1804, a law was passed directing the sale of 
two hundred and fifty acres of the land of the Salt Springs Reservation, 
and that the avails should be laid out under the authority of James Greddes, 
Moses Carpenter, and John Young, in constructing a road from the town 
of Manlius west across the Reservation. The land was located and sur- 
veyed by Mr. Geddes, and was duly sold at auction for the sum of 06,550, 
3 



26 

in the monih of June of that year, to Mr. Abraham Walton, thus acquir- 
ing the name of the " Walton tract." This two hundred and fifty acres is 
in the central part of the present city of Syracuse. 

Mr. Walton laid out his purchase into village lots, and commenced their 
sale. In 1805 he erected mills. In 1814, so much of the tract as remained 
unsold was transferred to Forman, Wilson & Co., for about $9,000. From 
these proprietors, in 1818, it passed into the hands of Daniel Kellogg and 
William H. Sabin. In 1823 they sold to Henry Eckford, and in May, 
1824, the property passed into the hands of the Syracjise company, for the 
sum of $30,000. From this time the growth of the village was rapid. In 
1847, it was incorporated as a city. It has eight wards, and by the census 
of 1855, had 25,107 inhabitants. The manufactory of about 7,000,000 of 
bushels of salt within, and in the immediate vicinity of the city every 
year, gives employment to a large number of men, and insures a constant 
and healthy growth. 

The site of this city is one of great beauty. It is a level plain, at the 
the foot of the slope of the highlands of the south part of the county, with 
the lake nearly enveloped with salt works on the other side. The city, 
though standing on level ground, is susceptible of perfect drainage into the 
Onondaga creek, which runs from south to north nearly through its centre, 
on a level about thirty feet below the general level of the plain. The hills 
that form the back ground, have many points of great beauty for suburban 
residences, and are fast being occupied by costly structures. 

The surface soil on which the city stands, is tenacious, and being level, 
it was formerly covered with a " dark, gloomy and almost impenetrable 
swamp." The whole is underlaid with coarse, open gravel, through which 
water runs freely, and cellars that reach into this gravel are dry. The 
gravel dips to the south ; on the nerth side of the Erie canal, it is found 
near the surface, while on the south, deeper excavations are necessary to 
reach it. 

This city is crossed from east to west by the Erie canal, and the Oswego 
canal unites with the Erie nef>.r the center of the city. The New York Central 
railroad runs through the center, crossing from east to west. In the city this 
road branches, and has two lines running west, one by the way of Auburn, 
Cayuga and Seneca lakes, Geneva and Canandaigua. The other by way of 
Clyde and Lyons. The Oswego and Syracuse railroad makes a connection 
with Lake Ontario, and the Binghamton railroad with the New York and Erie 
and Pennsylvania railroads. These various avenues of trade and travel 
bring Syracuse into free communication with the whole country, and have 
caused it to be called " The Central City." The means of communication 
now possessed by this city, and the county are in strong contrast to those 
enjoyed by the earliest settlers. The rivers that unite their waters at 
Three River Point, were used by them to transport most of their supplies. 
The first salt works in the town of Geddes, received their kettles from 
Pennsylvania, by way of the Susquehanna river and its branches, the Che- 
mung and Conhocton, then over a portage to a tributary of Crooked lake . 



27 

tKence down the lake and its outlet to Seneca lake ; thence by Seneca river 
to the outlet of Onondaga lake. By way of the Oneida river and lake, by 
making a portage where Rome now stands, there was a connection made 
with the Mohawk river. In due time, roads were made that crossed from 
east to west, and from north to south. Until the completion of the Erie 
canal, in 1825, our goods were transported by the merchants at great 
expense from Albany, in wagons drawn by from three to seven horses, 
making slow and toilsome progress. These big wagons carried back the 
potash in barrels tli|it the merchants had taken in exchange for their goods. 
In the winter, our farmers drew wheat to Utica, where the merchants pur- 
chased it, and sent it down the Mohawk in small river boats in the spring ; 
or the farmer continued on to Albany, and sold his wheat, and perhaps 
returned with a load of goods for some neighboring merchant. Thus we 
were forced to transport our surplus farm products, one hundred and fifty 
miles by land carriage over the bad roads of a new country, or over the 
much better surface, made by the snows of winter. The price here of wheat 
during this period was about fifty, sixty-three, or perhaps seventy-five cents 
a bushel, except during the war of 1812 to 1815, when prices were much 
enhanced. Our great and reliable markets have always been the cities on 
tide water. 



CHAPTER 11. 

GEOLOGY. 

Onondaga presents more features of interest to the geologist, than any 
other county of this State, or, perhaps, any like extent of countryin the 
United States. Its rocks range east and west ; the order of succession 
being constant ; the lowest being at the northeast corner of the county, 
and the highest, and most recent, at the southwest. 

Of the New York system of rocks, there outcrops in this county, the 

Clinton Grroup, 

Niagara Limestone, 

Onondaga Salt Grroup. 

Water Lime Croup, 

Oriskany Sandstone, 
, Onondaga Limestone, 

Corniferous Limestone, 

Seneca Limestone, 

Marcellus Shales, 

Hamilton Croup, 

TuUy Limestone, 

Cenesee Slate, and the lower measures of the 

Ithaca Group. 
These rocks are best observed by commencing at the northeast corner of 
the county, and moving to the southwest, crossing their outcrop nearly at 
right angles, and in the line of the greatest dip of the stratification. The 



28 

starting point will be Oneida lake, where the Clinton Group outcrops ; the 
end of the journey, Skaneateles lake. The elevation of the starting point, 
above tide, is 369 feet ; the highest point passed over, EipleyHill, the 
summit between Skaneateles and Otisco lakes, and the highest land in the 
county, being 1,982| above tide. The distance, in a direct line, from 
Oneida Lake to Ripley Hill, is thirty-two miles. 

The dip of the system of rocks, in this direction, is, very exactly, twenty- 
six feet to the mile, giving, for the distance, 852 feet. It is very uniform, 
and is greatest in a line a little west of southwest ; while the general line 
of the outcrop is nearly east and west. These rocks were deposited in that 
vast sea that once overspread this part of the continent, all of them being 
sedimentary, and filled with evidences of an abundant animal life. When 
they were lifted above the sea by those vast internal forces that are con- 
stantly changing the form of the crust of the earth, they were tilted from 
the level position in which they had been deposited. The point of greatest 
upheaval being far to the northeast of this county ; only part of one of the 
slopes comes under our observation. 

The hills rise in a direction opposite to that of the dip of the rocks. 
The surface rising, in the thirty-two miles, over sixteen hundred feet ; the 
bottom of our lowest rock falling, in the same distance, more than eight 
hundred and fifty-two feet ; a section of these formations would show a 
wedge, 2,465 feet thick at the southwest end, regular on the lower side, 
but on the upper, broken by unequal steps, due to the varying thickness of 
the different strata. The surface waters run northerly ; while those under- 
neath flow in the opposite direction. Springs are not to be looked for along 
the unbroken line of the outcrop of the rocks, but in the sides of the vari- 
ous valleys that cut this slope, at or near right angles, or on the north 
sides of such valleys as are parallel with the line of the outcrop. 

Any attempt to procure water by artesian wells would, probably, prove 
unsuccessful, unless deep enough to reach the granite formations. 

The rocks that outcrop in this county once extended over the present 
surface far to the north, but by the action of water, they have been broken 
down, ground up, and strewn along the valleys that have been scored out 
across the line of their present outcrop, and those with which they connect, 
far beyond the southern limits of the county and State. 

This point will be more fully investigated hereafter, a description of the 
rocks being first necessary. • 

The northernmost and lowest rock is known as the Clinton group. It is 
seen in the counties east and west of this, underlies the whole north line of 
this county, and appears on both sides of the west end of Oneida lake. 
" This group is characterized by its iron ore beds and its marine plants,"* 
The iron appears in this county only in small quantities, the rock being 
covered with alluvium except at a few points. The best place to observe 
it is near the west end of Oneida lake, at Fort Brewerton. There the 
shale appears along the bank of the outlet, and in the hill in the village. 

* Yanuxem. 



29 

The north part of the towns of Lysander, Clay and Cicero lies on this 
rock, and the soils of these towns are, to some extent, made up of the 
materials of which it is composed. Prof. Emmons says of it that its most 
interesting feature "consists in the rapid changes in the strata, which enter 
into its formation, and which, taken together, form a most heterogenous 
assemblage of materials ; for this reason the group was called in an early 
stage of the survey, the Protean grov.p. The formation consists of layers 
and beds composed of green, blue and brown, sandy and argillaceous shales ; 
alternating with greenish brown sandstones, conglomerates or pebbly beds ; 
and oolitic iron ore. These difiFerenc kinds of materials rapidly succeed 
each other. The parts of this formation which are the most persistent, are 
the green shales ; whose color, however, inclines more to blue than green, 
where they have not been exposed to weathering. The sandstone, which 
is rather harsh, in consequence of the preponderance of sharp, angular 
grains, is also greenish, or greenish gray,"* It rests on the Medina sand- 
stone, which in turn rests on the gray sandstone of Oswego, " which," 
according to Emmons, "is identical with the gray, thick-bedded sandstone 
of the Hudson river series," These rocks furnish the materials for much 
of the drift that covers the north part of this county. 

The Clinton group is found in Ohio, Pennsylvania and Canada. In this 
State, according to Mr. Hall, it is not more than eighty feet thick. 

Resting on the Clinton group, and next in order, wc find the Niagara 
Limestone, so called from its being the rock which forms the famous cata- 
ract of that name. In Onondaga this is a thin rock, thinner at the east 
side than at the west. It crosses the east line of the county at Bridgeport, 
forming a bar across Chittenango creek, and thus creating a valuable mill 
power. It outcrops at various places 'in the town of Cicero, and on Mr. 
Whiting's farm, where it is extensively quarried for the valuable building 
stone it affords, it presents a surface of fifteen acres, but thinly covered 
with soil. It has been used to a limited extent for burning into lime. 

The layers are respectively fourteen, seven, three and four inches thick. 
Below these the courses are thin and of no value. The whole thickness at 
Whiting's is three feet. The seams are frequent, making the quarry easy 
to work. 

This stone has been quarried at several other points along its outcrop to 
the west line of the county. The most important openings are north of 
Baldwinsville, and near the northwest corner of the town of Lysander. 
This rock contains " some geodes, lined with rhombic crystals of carbonate 
of lime, and gypsum, in small globular accretions, at Whiting's quarry. ''t 
"It differs so much in its appearance here from the western geodiferous 
limestone, that it would hardly be recognized as the same rock, if it could 
not be traced almost uninterruptedly in its western route, but it marks the 
termination of the Ontario division, of the State reports, and is the upper 
measure of a distinct era in geological history, whose importance cannot b? 
well estimated, "t 

• Emmons. f Yanaxem. % Emmons. 



30 

The Onondaga Salt Group rests on the Niagara limestone. The 
lower part of this formation is the Red Shale, upon -which, and in some 
cases, mingling with it, is placed the Grreen Shale, the two constituting the 
whole group. 

Embraced within the Green Shale are the Gypsum beds, and the vermi- 
cular, or porus lime rock. This group is very extensive, reaching from near 
the Hudson river, quite across the State. All the Gypsum masses of West- 
ern New York are found in it, and from it flows all the salt water used for 
making salt in Onondaga and Cayuga counties. 

The Erie canal runs near the line of division between the Red and Green 
Shales, for the whole width of the county. The level district north of the 
canal, and south of the Niagara outcrop, is nearly all based on the Red 
Shale, while the slope reaching from the canal to the Water Lime range, 
on the south, is principally made up of the Green Shales. The average 
width of the Red Shale is about seven miles; that of the Green, about 
three. 

The Red Shale, as computed from the dip and elevation, is three hun- 
dred and forty-one feet thick, at the line of the Erie canal, south of Onon- 
daga lake. The surface of that lake being, very exactly, three hundred 
feet above the Niagara Limestone. It is generally covered with drift, com- 
posed of lime, gravel, sand, and small stones, made up mostly of the Medina 
sandstones, and the gray sandstones of Oswego county, with occasional 
beds of clay. 

Owing to whirls and eddies in those surges, that beat down and ground 
up these rocks, numerous conical shaped hills generally, somewhat longer 
from north to south than from east to west, and differing in size, from a 
few acres to several hundred, have been dotted over the surface of the west- 
ern part of this formation, like hay cocks in a meadow. The largest one 
is at the mouth of the valley of Nine Mile Creek. The Erie canal passes 
around it on the south, and the Central railroad on the north. It is two 
hundred feet in height, containing about a thousand of acres of drift, and 
so level is the plain on which it stands, that a canal without a lock might 
surround it. These drift hills also abound in the district embraced by the 
Green Shales, but the transported stones that cover them have a greater 
proportion of granite boulders of large size. 

The Red Shale is described by Prof. Emmons, as properly, a red marl, 
soft throughout, except a few thin strata of sandstone near the top, but 
even these fall to pieces and cannot be employed at all for purposes of con- 
struction. Whenever it crops out, it is covered with its own debris. He 
determined that one hundred grains of the most sandy part, and the same 
amount of the softer kinds were combined in the following proportions : 

Sandy. Marly. 

Silex, 68.25 68.86 

Peroxide of iron and alumina 6.25 14.98 

Magnesia, 5.75 0.40 

Carbonate of lime, 10.25 9.89 



31 

^ Sandy. Marly. 

Phosphate of alumina, and phosphate of peroxide of iron, 00.00 0.14 

Organic matter, 6.00 4.50 

Water, 1.00 6.48 



99.50 99.25 

In some places this Red Shale is so soft that it is extensively mannufac- 
tured into brick ; in others, the sand is in layers, having thin strata of clay 
between them. " Nowhere has a fossil been discovered in it, or a pebble, 
or anything extraneous, except a few thin layers of sandstone and its dif- 
ferent colored shales and slate."* 

GrYPSEOUS OR GrEEN ShALES, CONTAINING THE BeDS OP GrYPSUM. — 

Immediately on, and united with the Red Shales, we find the plaster bear- 
ing Green Shales. The line of division is not well determined, — the red, 
green, and yellow colored, with some of a blue cast, intermingle for a few 
feet in thickness. The color of this upper measure of the salt group is 
variable through its w^hole thickness, being sometimes nearly white, then 
drab, but it has received its name from the prevailing green. A better 
name would be the Gypseous Shales, as the term Green Shales is sometimes 
applied to portions of the Clinton Group. In this Gypseous Shale large 
masses are found that Prof. Eaton called vermicular lime rock. "This rock 
is essentially calcareous, strongly resembling porous or cellular lava. In 
color it is a dark gray or blue rock, perforated everywhere with curvilinear 
holes, but very compact between the holes. These holes vary from micro- 
scopic, to half an inch in diameter ; they are generally very irregular, and 
communicate in most instances with each other. 

The resemblance of no small part of the rock to a porous lava is perfect ; 
but the structure of the cells leaves no doubt as to their mineral origin. 
The cells show that parts of the rock were disposed to separate into thin 
layers which project into cells, evidently the result of the simultaneous 
forming of the rock, and of a soluble mineral, whose removal caused the 
cells in question. This view is confirmed by the discovery in this lock of 
those forms which are due to common' salt, showing that a soluble saline 
mineral had existed in it, had acquired shape in the rock, and had subse- 
quently been dissolved, leaving a cavity or cavities."* There are two 
masses of this vermicular rock — one low down, of about twenty feet in 
thickness, appearing on James street, Syracuse, and at various other places ; 
the upper mass is thinner, but its thickness is not uniform. In the lower 
mass, on James street, are some specimens of crystalline character, being 
serpentines, the action of crystallization having been very powerful but 
local, producing mica, and even nodules of granite, or rather syenite. 

Between the two layers of vermicular lijnc are the hopper-formed 
masses. Perhaps these hopper-formed rocks possess more interest for the 
geologist than any other part of the group, because they are supposed to 

^•Vanuxem. 



32 

furnisli proof of the origin of the salt water, of so much importance to the 
industry of this part of the State. 

These forms are produced, it is asserted, by the crystallization of salt 
before the hardening of the clay. The supposition being that, while the 
whole mass was in the form of mud, having a large quantity of dissolved 
salt mixed with it, the salt, in precisely the manner we can see in the pro- 
cess of the manufacture of solar salt, attracted particle to particle and 
assumed the form of a hopper, the mud filling it up ; then, by the action 
tion of water falling on the surface and percolating through the mass that 
had become full of cracks in the process of drying, the salt was dissolved 
and carried down upon the more compact strata below, and by the dip of 
that strata carried into, rather than out of the hill. No other common 
soluble mineral presenting similar forms, and the fact that all our salt 
water is found below, and near these hopper-formed rocks, gives great force 
to this theory. The absence of salt around these hopper-formed rocks is 
accounted for, by their being so near the surface that the rains must have 
long ago carried it away. If an excavation were made farther south, 
where the overlying rocks are thick enough to protect the salt-bearing 
rocks from the action of water, undissolved salt might be found. 

Besides the minerals described as being in, and belonging to this Shale, 
we have yet to mention the beds of gypsum. This valuable mineral is found 
in various places, in the upper parts of the salt group, through the whole 
county. It is extensively quarried in Manlius, De Witt, Onondaga, 
Camillus and Elbridge. The largest openings are in De Witt, northeast 
from Jamesville. It is here found in masses more than thirty feet thick, 
of an excellent quality, and is sold on the bank of the canal sometimes at 
less than one dollar per ton. 

Some very valuable quarries are worked in the town of Camillus. The 
railroad cutting, along the valley of Nine Mile creek, exposes large masses. 
The whole thickness of the gypseous shale, is 295 feet. Prof. Emmons 
gives the composition of the hopper- formed masses, as follows: 

Water of absorption, 56 

Organic matter, 5 . 00 

Silex, 34,56 

Carbonate of lime, 43 , 06 

Alumina and protoxide of iron, 13 . 36 

Sulphate of lime 1 . 00 

Magnesia, 2.17 

99.71 



One hundred grains in six ounces of rain water, yield of the debris of 
the shale, 6.53 ; of which 1.03 is vegetable matter, and 5.50 saline. 

Prof. Emmons gives an analysis of the water of Mr. Greddes' well at 
Fairmount, which receives its water through a seam in the Vermicular 
limerock. It is as follows : 



33 

One quart evaporated slowly to dryness, the last part of the process 
being performed in a platinum capsule, gave 

Solid matter, 8.72 

Organic matter, 1.44 

Saline, 7.25 

" The water of the hydrant company, which supplies Syracuse, contains 
forty grains of saline matter to the gallon. It consists of the chlorides of 
sodium and calcium, sulphates of lime and alumina, with some organic 
matter." * The springs that are discharged from these rocks deposit 
Tufa. Only a few fossils are found in the upper part of the Gypseous 
Shales, Prof. Hall assigns the rocks composing the Salt Group, to a mud 
volcano, that was " charged with saline matter and corroding acids, which 
■would alone destroy all organisms." Vanuxem says, that " The Salt 
Group, as a whole, presents the same order of saline deposits, "including 
iron, observed in the salt pans where solar evaporation is used. The first 
deposit in the pans is ferruginous, being red oxide of iron, and staining, of 
a red color, whatever it falls upon ; the next deposit which takes place is 
the gypsum ; the third is the common salt, the magnesian salt remaining in 
solution. The group shows first a thick: mass, colored red with iron, being 
its red shale ; above which are the gypseous masses ; towards the upper 
part of which are the salt cavities ; the sulphate of magnesia exists above 
the whole of these deposits, its existence there being manifested by the 
needle-form cavities." 

Water Lime, is the name given to the next group of rocks. It rests 
on the Gypseous Shales, and is,. in all, 127 feet thick. The lower measures 
are irregular in their formation, having uneven beds, with layers of vary- 
ing thickness. This part of the rock is used mostly for farm fences, to 
which purpose it is well adapted, resisting the action of frost, and being so 
thin as to require little skill in laying it, so as to make the most durable 
fence known. That part used for making cement is on the top, and con- 
sists of two layers, from three to four feet thick. " Color, drab, dull in 
its fracture, and composed of minute grains with usually but few Imes of 
division." The upper of these courses burns more easily than the lower. 
When burned, it is ground fine, and mixed with sand ; one part of lime to 
from two to six parts of sand, according to its quality and the speed with 
which it is desirable the cement should set. Owing to its property of pre- 
serving its form and hardening under water, it is used with stone or brick in 
the construction of cisterns, and without any other substance but sand for 
pipes for conducting water from springs. Such is its strength, that a cylinder 
of pure cement and sand, six inches in diameter, of one inch caliber, buried 
three feet in the ground, after some years, became closed at the lower end, 
and the pipe sustained the pressure of a column of water forty feet in 
height. The best practical tests for persons unskilled in judging of the 
quality of this lime for cement, are : The stone, when burned, must not 
slake on the application of water ; when ground, the cement must set 

•Emmons. 



34 

quickly on being wet; keep its form under water, and harden until it 
becomes as hard as a well burnt brick. It is sometimes injured by being 
burned too much, and very often it is not ground fine enough, Mr. Dela- 
field says, of water lime, " If it contains twenty per cent of clay, it will 
slake, but will also cement. If it contains an amount of clay equal to 
thirty per cent, it will not slake well, nor heat, but forms an excellent 
cement " Sganzin, in his work on Civil Engineering, says (p. 20) : " Being 
master of the proportions of hydraulic lime, we can give any degree of 
energy required. Common lime will bear even twenty per cent of argile, 
medium lime ; that is, that which is a mean between the common and 
meagre lime, will take from five to fifteen per cent of argile. When we 
augment the quantity to forty parts of clay to one hundred of lime, the 
lime does not slake, the mixture is pulverant, and when moistened, it 
becomes solid, immediately, when immersed in water." The Onondaga 
Water Lime is simply an impure lime, having clay enough in it to make it 
resist the action cf water. Large quantities of hydraulic cement are manu- 
factured from our rocks, and sent in barrels wherever required. 

There are some courses of this group, known by the local name of blue 
lime, which being too pure in lime for cement, are burnt for quicklime, 
and are also used for building purposes. Six varieties of fossils found in 
it, are represented in the State reports. 

Localities. About three-fourths of a mile southwest of the village of 
Manlius, this rock forms the " falls " in Limestone creek. " The lower 
layers contain a large proportion of ordinary lime, free from all accretions 
of a silicious nature, and therefore make, a first quality of lime." The 
most extensive exposure of water lime is about a mile south of the village, 
at Brown's saw mill. Butternut creek, below Jamesville, near Dunlop's 
mill, exposes it in large quantities. It is also found in Onondaga Valley, 
and Split Bock quarry, where it appears in the face of the precipice all 
along for miles. The only additional localities, necessary to mention, are 
the crossing of Nine Mile creek and Skaneateles creek, over the rocks. 
The width of surface, underlaid by water lime, varies constantly ; small 
outliers, in some places, extend over the gypsious group — but in many 
places the outcrop is precipitous. On the whole, perhaps, the average 
width of land on the outcrop, is not more than a quarter of a mile. 

Oriskany Sandstone. — This rock is next above the water lime. "In 
this county it is of variable thickness, owing to the uneven surface upon 
which it was deposited." * At Manlius, it is but a few inches in thickness, 
while to the southwest of the village of Onondaga Yalley, it is seven feet, 
and at Split Bock, there is only a trace to be seen. Again it thickens, and 
on the road from Elbridge to Skaneateles, it is about thirty feet thick. 
This sandstone, with some exceptions, consists of medium sized quartz 
sand, such as is derived from the primary rocks. The fossils are interest- 
ing, and may be found represented in the State reports. Some of this 
stone from the Skaneateles quarries was used in constructing locks when 

• Vanuxem. 



35 

the Erie canal was first made, and was found to wear very well. It i3 
used in the vicinity of the quarry for various structures. 

Onondaga Limestone. — The next in the ascending order is the Onon- 
daga limestone, reaching, in a well defined wall across this county, and 
easily traced from the Helderberg, near Albany, to Lake Erie. This rock 
may be easily recognized by its many fossils, its gi'ay color, crystalline 
structure and toughness. "It abounds in smooth, encrinal stems [Encri- 
nites lavis] which is found only in this rock in the State. Some of these 
stems are about an inch in diameter, and usually they are over half an 
inch. In almost all cases they are replaced by lamellar carbonate of 
lime." * At Split Rock, where it is extensively quarried, it is twenty-four, 
feet thick. Its power to resist the action of air, water and frost — its 
strength and ability to sustain great weight, without crushing — the ease 
with which it may be worked — its evenness of texture and soundness, giv- 
ing it capability of being worked into elaborate mouldings — [the Court 
House in Syracuse, presents a sample of this quality] — render it the most 
valuable stone for building of any known in this country. It is used as a 
marble, bearing a high polish, and presenting a beautiful appearance when 
so polished as to bring out the fossils perfectly. The Rochester aqueduct, 
and other principal structures on the enlarged Erie and Oswego canals, in 
this vicinity, have been made from this stone. It is generally, nearly pure 
lime, and when burned, will, in the process of slaking, so increase in bulk, 
that two parts become five. 

Its analysis, by Lewis C. Beck, gives 

Carbonate of lime, 99.30 

Oxide of iron, 20 

Insoluble matter (silica and alumina), 40 

99.90 



The slaked lime is of the purest white. This rock forms terraces in 
some places ; at others, it presents perpendicular walls for its whole thick- 
ness. The two most marked precipices, are the one at Split Rock, and 
the other northwest from Jamesville, near one of the Green lakes. The 
top of the one at Split Rock is 810 feet above tide. Very little of the sur- 
face is exposed ; the overlying rock, in most cases, covering, and extending 
to, and forming part of the perpendicular precipices before referred to. 
The local name is gray lime. The directions of the vertical joints of this 
rock are, N. 33'' to 35° £ ; and S. 55° to 57° E. ; dividing the benches 
into convenient sizes for working. The surface shows slight scratches, 
running north and south. " The lower ledges of the limestone frequently 
contain black pebbles, whose water worn character admits of no doubt. 
When fractured, they show identity with the sandstone nodules or accre- 
tions found in the Oriskany sandstone." * 

CoRNiPEROUS Limestone. — Next above, and lying on the Onondaga, 
are the Corniferous, and Seneca Limestones, which are divided in the State 

•Vanuxem. 



36 

Reports, merely because tlie upper measures have a fossil not found below. 
[Stropbomena Lincata.] The line of division between the Helderberg series, 
and the next above, is determined by these fossils. 

Corniferovs is the name given to this limestone, by Prof. Eaton, in his 
survey of the Erie canal, from its containing flint or horn stone, in nodules, 
arranged in parallel layers. The lime furnished by this rock is not pure, 
especially the lower layers ; the upper, or what is called Seneca Lime- 
stone, are extensively quarried at Marcellus, showing vertical joints, and 
giving nearly square corners. The courses at the top of the quarry are 
about seven inches thick, and lie immediately below the Black Shales ; 
lower down, they are thicker. The Corniforous Limestone may be traced 
by its outcrop all ihe way through the county ; the top of the rock, some- 
times barely covered with earth, presents plateaus that slope to the south 
and west, in the direction of the dip. Near Manlius village, west of James- 
ville, and north of Onondaga Hill, these plains are widest. 

The general width of this exposure of Corniferous and Seneca limestone, 
is less than half a mile. At Split Rock, it is 849 feet above tide, and is 
forty feet thick. With it terminates the Helderberg division. 

Marcellus Shales, is the name given to the black rock that rests on 
the Helderberg range. " It is characterized by its color, and by exhaling 
a bituminous odor when rubbed. It is a slate, thin bedded, and easily 
broken, and disintegrates rapidly under the action of water and frost. The 
silico-argillaceous matter predominates over the calcareous. There is suffi- 
cient lime to effervesce with mineral acids. The lower part of the rock is 
more highly charged with lime than the upper." * It contains small parti- 
cles of coal, and many excavations have been made in it, in the hope of 
finding this valuable mineral in sufficient quantities to make the mining 
profitable. These excavations are no longer made, as the general spread 
of geological knowledge has taught the public that there is no hope of 
finding coal in this rock in remunerative quantities. Its peculiar fossil is 
the Marcellus goniatite, which, with some others, is represented in the 
State Reports. It also abounds in oval bodies, called Septaria, which " are 
impure limestone, the materials of which were deposited along with the 
shaly matter ; but in consequence of the play of affinities, the calcareous 
part separated from the great mass of shaly matter, and the molecules com- 
bined to form the bodies under consideration. During the process of dry- 
ing, the argillo-calcareous matter shrinks and cracks, forming thereby 
septa, which are subsequently filled by infiltration, either with calcite or 
the sulphate of barytes or strontian." * At Manlius, a black limestone, 
from five to ten feet thick, is found in the midst of the shales. It is 
weathered out into extremely rough masses, so that the persons who work 
it, usually call it chawed rock. Its composition does not differ materially 
from that of the septaria ; and will increase in value and importance when 
it is known that these masses make the true Roman cement.* 

There is a fault in this rock, about a mile west of Manlius village. It 

* Emmone. 



3T 

is quite local. At Marcellus numerous sink holes exist in the underlying 
stones, into which portions of the upper masses have fallen. This shale is 
said to be thicker in Onondaga county than anywhere else, forming through- 
out the base of the next group, between which, and the one now under con- 
sideration, no well defined line of division has yet been observed. The 
Marcellus Shales, in addition to lime, contain carbonate of magnesia. 

The line between the rocks, denominated in the State reports Marcellus 
and Ha^nilton Shales, is not easily determined, except by an examination 
of the fossils. As we ascend the slope the rocks become more sandy, lose 
their color and slaty character, until we find ourselves upon those which 
are in the main silicious, containing very little calcareous or magnesian 
matter. 

Hamilton Group. — "This group abounds in fossils, such as shells, 
corals, trilobites, fucoids, and a. few plants resembling those of terrene 
origin. In organic remains it is the most prolific of all the New York 
rocks. (The characteristic ones are represented in the State reports.) It 
extends from near the Hudson to Lake Erie, and consists of shale, slate 
and sandstone, with endless mixtures of these materials. They form three 
distinct mineral masses as to kinds, but not as to superposition or arrange- 
ment, though generally the sandy portion is in the middle of the group."* 
This rock, with the Marcellus Shales, covers a large part of the county, 
south of the Helderberg range, — appearing in the towns of Manlius, Pom- 
pey, Onondaga, Marcellus, Skaneateles, Spafl'ord, La Fayette, Otisco and 
Tully. The thickness of the Marcellus and Hamilton Shales, by comput- 
ing the dip, is 691 feet. The top of the group, at a point east of, and near 
the head of Skaneateles lake, is 1,111 feet above tide. The two points from 
which this calculation is made, one of them being near the northeast cor- 
ner of lot eighty-three, of the town of Onondaga, the other on the east 
side of Skaneateles lake ; are distant from each other sixteen and a half 
miles in a direct line. The whole surface embraced in this distance is cut 
into deep valleys, running nearly north and south, and at the crossing of 
every stream that flows down the slopes, the rocks are exposed in steep 
precipices. In many places they ai*e denuded of their own debris, and as 
a result, vegetation is comparatively stinted. 

The Tullet Limestone rests on the Hamilton Group, and marks the 
line of division between it and the Genesee Slates. This rock varies from 
fourteen to twenty feet in thickness. It is an impure, fine-grained lime- 
stone, " dark or blackish blue, breaking into irregular fragments, owing to 
the particles of carbonate of lime separating from a mixed mass of innu- 
merable points. It makes a good, but not a white lime."* 

It is the most southern mass of limestone in the State. There are two 
fossils wholly peculiar to it — the Cuboidal afrypa, and the Tully orthis — 
which are represented in the State reports. This rock is seen on the west 
side of Delphi Valley, and at Tinker^s Falls, near the county line, "where 
the water flows over. the rock about fifty feet, which projects ten or fifteeE 

* Yauaxem. 



38 

feet beyond the shale beneath it. The usual fossils are present." It also 
appears at various points in the town of Tully, from which it takes its 
name. On the west side of the valley of Onondaga creek, and in the 
vicinity of Vesper it has been burned for lime. It underlies nearly the 
whole of. the town of Otisco. The valley of Otisco Lake cuts it, the out- 
cron b-eing seen on both sides of the lake. About a mile south of Boro- 
dino, in the town of Spafford, it presents a bold wall, from which stone 
for lime and building has been taken. The line of the outcrop is easily 
traced along the east side of Skaneateles Lake from this point, until the 
county line is passed. This rock probably underlies and makes the floor 
of Cortland valley for a great distance south. The most northerly point 
at which it appears, is in the northeast corner of the town of Otisco ; but 
from the elevation of the town of Pompey, it must underlie a considerable 
portion of that town, although it is so covered with soil that it cannot be 
seen. The Tully limestone terminates all those deposits in which calcare- 
ous matter forms an essential part. 

The Genesee Slate, rests on the Tully limestone, underlies and forms 
the hills and most of the soils of the south part of the towns of Pompey, 
Fabius, Tully, Otisco and Spafford. Vanuxem says of this rock, that it 
is an argillaceous fissile mass, which, with great propriety, might be termed in 
English local, geological phraseology, a mud rock. The few fossils it con- 
tains are represented in the State reports. It may readily be known by 
its black color, slatey formation and position, — being between the Tully 
limestone, and the sandstone flags of the base of the Ithaca group. 

The Ithaca Group is the last formation that requires a description in 
giving the geology of Onondaga county. But a small portion of the soil 
is formed from it, as it merely appears on the tops of the highest hills. 
Vanuxem describes it as a mass of hard, coarse shale and sandstone, dark 
in color, often brown after exposure, owing probably to manganese. A 
characteristic fossil is found near, but south of the county line, at Scott's 
Corners, the Interstriate strophomejia, which is represented in the State 
reports. Above these rocks, but beyond the limits of this county, rise 
the'Chemung, Catskill, old red sandstone, conglomerates and coal measures, 
all presenting a northern outcrop, and having a dip that goes to show that 
the whole belong to one upheaval from the sea, in which these rocks, which 
furnish the materials for our soils were formed during those vast periods 
of time which the Supreme Being has employed in storing up these resources 
for supplying the comforts that now surround man's happy dwelling places. 

Marl and Tufa. — " Marl is a carbonate of lime, which has separated 
from its solvent in water ; the latter preventing its particles from cohering 
together, and allowing them to subside in the state of a calcareous mud. 
It is in many places constantly depositing from waters holding lime in 
solution."* On the north side of the Helderberg range there are exten- 
eive beds of mai'l that are due to the dissolving of the calcareous rocks of 
that group. On the south side marl is found in various places, due to water 

* Vanuxem. 



39 

percolating through limestone gravel that has been transported from the 
Helderberg group. The southern deposits are inconsiderable when com- 
pared with the great northern beds that extend, nearly unbroken, from 
east to west across the country. The principal localities of the marl due 
to drift deposits are in the towns of Fabius and Tully. In both these 
towns, marl has been fashioned into the form of brick, dried and burned 
for lime, making a very superior article for finishing walls, and selling at 
about twice the price of lime burned from the common limestone. The 
lakes of Tully are constantly depositing marl. The waters that supply 
these lakes run through pebbles of limestone, and are thus charged with 
calcareous matter, which incrusts every twig or other obstruction that it 
meets. Cicero swamp is a bed of lake marl. Onondaga and Cross lakes 
have many feet of it all over their beds. The railroad as it approaches the 
tunnel east of Syracuse, exposes by the excavation a section of great 
interest, " showing in the ditch, clay, and two deposits of marl, which sep- 
arate three deposits of muck, with stumps and roots, chiefly of tamarack or 
balsam."* Southeast of the village of Be Witt, in excavating for the canal 
feeder, stumps were found some feet below the surface, showing that a 
forest has been destroyed by some rise in the water, caused perhaps by a 
dam of drift wood. The trees died and decayed to the surface of the water, 
the stumps being preserved by the water. In time the pond filled up with 
alluvium, and again there was a forest of cedars. In the swamp north of 
the canal, in the town of Van Buren, there is an extensive deposit of marl, 
and it is found in various other places, in some cases pure enough to make 
valuable lime, and in others so mixed with earth as to be merely a calcare- 
ous clay. There are many localities south of the Helderberg range, where 
the springs deposit calcareous matter in the form of Tufa. These masses 
are constantly increasing as the water flows over them, and casts of 
leaves, and parts of trees, abound in them. Calcareous tufa is found 
all along the base of the Helderberg range, wherever a spring flows 
out. Below the gypseous rocks it is seen in large masses. These 
rocks being permeable to water, this fluid becomes charged with lime, and 
when it appears on the surface the tufa is deposited. The deposits gene- 
rally appear at the sides of the hills or valleys near the point where the 
calcareous waters issue, and continue down in many instances to a consid- 
erable distance, should their course be oblique, or above the drains of the 
valley, else they are arrested by its waters. Sometimes where the deposit 
has been rapid, a mixture of the earth and marl and the tufa takes place, 
as on Limestone creek to the south of Delphi. The deposits are numerous 
in the towns of Manlius, De Witt and Camillus. "Along Nine Mile creek 
it has the crystalline character of alabaster, ,showing successive layers also, 
and in quantity suitable for the smaller purposes for which that beautiful 
substance is used when polished."* Ferruginous tufa, stained with the 
hydrate of iron, is found two and a half miles northeast of Syracuse in 
quite an extensive deposit, on land formerly owned by Mr. Wheeler. 

* Vanuxem. 



40 

There is another and similar one on Nine Mile creek, helow the village of 
Marcellus. These deposits of ferruginous tufa, and a srnall one of bog 
ore, on the Oneida river, are due to the decomposition of rocks containing 
iron, or are derived from the soil by the agency of decomposing vegetable 
matter. In the town of Fabius on Limestone creek, there is a large quan- 
tity of tufa, showing the three varieties ; the earthy, solid (or horsebone as it 
is called) and ferruginous. 

Peat, or Muck, is found in great abundance in the swamps and low 
grounds. Mr. Yanuxem says that the conditions necessary for its produc- 
tion, are permanent moisture, with a subsoil of either clay or marl, imper- 
meable to water. Itjs formed of successive growths of vegetation, which 
have died, and become brown or black. It is so spongy, and retentive of 
water, that by successive growths it raises its bed, and appears in mounds 
and hillocks. This is aided greatly, in some localities, by deposits of Tufa, 
constantly forming beneath it. Usually, the surface is soft, yielding to 
pressure, and trembling when walked upon. Dr. Jackson found peat in 
Maine, exhibiting the compact nature and color of coal. It is not used in 
this country for fuel, so far as known, but the time is not distant when 
these entensive beds will be of value for this purpose. As a manure, muck 
is fast coming into use, and soon will be much prized. 

Valleys and Lakes. 

The evidences of the action of water on the rocks of this county, are 
apparent on the most cursory examination. 

The perpendicular wall of the Helderberg series, is, at Split Rock, not 
less than one hundred feet in height ; and around Green lake, northwest 
of Jamesville, it rises two hundred feet. This wall extends from east to 
west, not only all the width of the county, but from the Hudson to the 
Niagara ; not always presenting the bold front we see here, but in a well 
defined line of escarpment. In various places this wall of hard limestone, 
with all the superincumbent rocks, has been broken through, forming deep 
and wide valleys. The first of these, beginning our examination on the 
east, is the one through which Limestone creek flows. Manlius village is 
situated on it, and the falls of the creek, in and south of the village, are 
over the edges of the limestone. The destruction of the whole rock is not 
so perfect here as in some of the other valleys. Butternut creek flows 
through a similar break in the wall. The valley of the Onondaga is the 
widest, and the destruction of the whole range is here the most extensive. 
Perpendicular walls of corresponding strata of the Onondaga limestone, 
appear on both sides of the valley for miles, as it is followed to the south, 
projecting from the hill sides, four hundred and fifty feet above the creek, 
at the village of Onondaga Valley, until, by the southern dip and the rise 
of the bed of the valley, the limestone crosses under the alluvium, about 
six miles south of the village. The next is the valley of the Nine Mile 
creek ; and the next, and last, is that of the Skaneateles. The action of 
water against the Helderberg range is most plainly exhibited around Green 
lake, near Jamesville. This lake is situated in what appears to have been 




r<,'< r-. 



GREEN LAKE, 

[ntlK'SoulhWpst (^)rn(M- of ihoTouu orDrWilt 



*1 

a bay, in a rock bound coast. The rock has been torn away in a direction 
nearly west from the main break in the range, and a lateral branch of But- 
ternut creek valley is thus formed, extending for nearly a mile at right 
angles with the main excavation. The end of this gorge is semi-circular, 
measuring about a quarter of a mile across, and the lake, having a surface 
of about ten acres of deep green water, lies in this basin, two hundred feet 
below the top of the walls that encircle it, except on the east side. It is 
sixty feet deep, giving for the whole depth of the chasm, from the top of 
the rocks, two hundred and sixty feet. Immediately north, and parellel 
with this excavation, is another, quite similar in form, but having no water 
in it, and being only about two hundred feet deep. The wall of rocks 
between these chasms is, at one place on tbe top, only sixty-six feet wide. 
The precipices are nearly perpendicular. Still farther to the nprth and 
west, the rocks are cut and denuded of soil, by the action of water ; and the 
upper layers of corniferous lime are, at the west of the two main excava- 
tions, torn away, and form a semi-circular wall, reaching around them both, 
with an inclined surface from the main precipices to the foot of the second 
wall. The forces that here operated, appear to have had the power, not 
only to drive back the walls, but to dig deep in the immediate front of 
them, and carry away the material. These excavations are all deepest at 
their west ends. The valley of €rreen lake being filled up on the east 
end with debris, somewhat above the surface of the lake, there is no 
apparent outlet, but the waters are discharged through the seams of the 
rocks under it. Within less than half a mile of this pond, to the north- 
west, there is a valley running east and west, which is cut entirely through 
the Helderberg range to the salt group, leaving, to the north, an out-lying 
hill, on the top of which the corniferous lime appears undisturbed. Through 
this valley runs the Syracuse and Binghamton railroad, and the plank 
road from Syracuse to Jamesville. The level bottom is a cedar swamp. 
The south side of this valley, as seen from the railroad, is a perpendicular 
wall, with a talus of crumbling stones at its base. The direction of this 
wall is about east and west. On the top there is a plain descending to 
the southwest as the rock dips, as before said, having very little soil on it. 
Near the edge of the precipice, the seams of the corniferous and the Onon- 
daga lime, are opened in lines parallel to the edge, so that persons may go 
down in them many feet. This shows that for a distance of a hundred feet 
the wall has moved outward, as this is the only way the seams could have 
been opened. The effect of water against the face of a cliff like this, that 
has hard and thick masses of stone on its top, and soft underneath, would 
be to wear out the soft shales below the hard courses ; and thus, their 
foundation being removed, they would first tilt, and then finally fall out- 
ward. In this locality, the action of water against the cliff ceased after 
the edge commenced moving, and before it fell off. The localities here 
described are illustrated in the drawing. The top of the picture is south ; 
the right hand, west. Green lake is seen, with the encircling walls of 
4 



42 

corniferous lime, at the top. The excavation without water, is immedi- 
ately below the lake ; lower down is the valley through which runs the rail- 
road. The out-lying hill, showing the corniferous lime on its top, is seen 
in the lower left hand corner. 

The five great valleys, viz : the Limestone, Butternut, Onondaga, Nine 
Mile creek and Skaneateles, extend from the salt group of rocks south, 
entirely across the county, and all of them open into others that extend 
farther south. Near the south line of the county, in each of these valleys, 
there is a summit, where their waters divide, running north to Lake Onta- 
rio, and south, to Chesapeake bay. The lime rocks that were torn up and 
broken where the Helderberg range crops out, are strewn along these val- 
leys, in the form of boulders and gravel, far to the south, filling them with 
drift, from which flow the waters that form the marl depositing lakes of the 
Cortland valley. 

Wells, sunk in this gravel, yield water strongly impregnated with lime. 
These boulders, and this gravel have been transported by water flowing 
from the north to the south. The power necessary to transport such large 
masses, for so many miles, must have been very great. The TuUy lime- 
stone is a hard solid mass of thick courses, but it has not only been torn 
up from from its bed in these valleys, but large blocks have been carried 
a distance of twelve miles. The fact that the broken fragments of these 
rocks, which are easily identified by their fossils, are many hundreds of 
feet higher, and far south of their original position, proves that they were 
transported by the same forces which broke through the ranges. An 
opinion has been expressed that these valleys were formed by great rivers, 
which have dwindled down to the insignificant streams that now meander 
from hill side to hill side, through the alluvium. This opinion is disproved 
by the fact, that the transported limestones are south of their original posi- 
tions, which is up" stream, as the waters now run, and also by the fact that 
the opposing walls of hard lime rock, from between which, hundreds of feet 
in thickness have been excavated to form Onondaga valley, are not less than 
two miles apart. A chasm cut, by a river, through a rocky barrier, is 
narrow ; even the great Niagara runs between walls less than a fifth of a 
mile asunder. It is not supposable that any rivers could have made these 
wide openings in the line of these rocks, which open like a funnel to the 
north, presenting just the shape demanded by the theory, that the force 
that excavated them came from that direction. 

Besides these north and south valleys, there are some that cross from 
east to west ; but they are short in comparison with those already described. 
The principal of these east and west valleys, is near the south line of the 
-^-^{ county, and may be said to connect the Limestone, Butternut and Onon- 
daga valleys. Another, but much shorter, connects the Onondaga with 
the Nine Mile creek. At Monfredy's Mills, the Marcellus Shales are all 
cut away, and the Corniferous limestone is exposed. The west branch of 
Onondaga creek flows through this valley, its head waters reaching nearly 
to Nine Mile creek. Still another extends from Limestone creek, below 



43 

Manlius, to Butternut creek, below Dunlop's Mills, where it connects 
with the one through which the Syracuse and Binghamton railroad runs, 
thus connecting these streams with the Onondaga. The valleys of Onon- 
daga and Oneida lakes are nearly east and west. 

All these are valleys of excavation ; not excavated by the waters now in 
them, but by those of ages long past, of which we know nothing, except 
as we read their history in the marks they have left upon the earth's sur- 
face, and judge of them by the testimony of the rocks. Mr. Vanuxem 
says, that the larger portion of the rolled stones in every one of these val- 
leys and on their dividing hills, are of northern origin, consisting of pri- 
mary rock, gray and red sandstone, the latter sometimes showing its Fuco- 
ides harlani, and amongst them, occasionally, some of the harder varieties 
of Pulaski sandstone, with its peculiar fossils. These stones are in such 
prodigious numbers, that their existence, can only be accounted for satis- 
factorily, by the extension of the rocks north, which, by their dip, would 
gradually bring thetn upon the same plane. Immediately south of the 
Corniferous limestone, there is, generally, a narrow strip of surface on 
which this rock is found scattered and much worn by water. Mingling 
with these loose stones, is an occasional granitic boulder. At the base of 
the Helderberg range, on the Gypseous Shales they are frequent, and, in 
some cases, are a great inconvenience to the farmer, their removal costing 
much labor. They are made into fences, if small enough to be handled, 
if not, holes are dug by their sides, and they are buried out of reach of 
the plow. Fire is resorted to where the rocks appear likely to divide by 
its action. The process is to make a brisk fire on one side of the mass, 
and by expanding that side by the heat, cause it to split off; it, however, 
not unfrequently happens that only a thin scale is removed, and then the 
drill and powder must be used. 

Lakes. — A marked characteristic of the geography of Central New 
York, is that group of internal lakes that discharge their waters by the 
Oswego river into Lake Ontario. The largest of them is Oneida, its sur- 
face having been computed at fifty-seven thousand acres. It bounds the 
northeast corner of Onondaga county, a small part only, lying within it. 
Its surface is three hundred and sixty-nine feet above tide, and its depth 
is not more than sixty feet. Like all our interior bodies of water, it is in 
a valley of- excavation ; probably the Oswego gray sandstone forms its bot- 
tom, though now covered with drift. This lake is navigated by steamers, 
and is connected with the Erie canal by a short line of canal near the east 
end, and with the Oswego canal by Oneida river. 

Onondaga Lake, which lies adjoining the city cf Syracuse, is about 
six miles long, and averages about a mile and a quarter in width. It is 
connected by its outlet, which is about half a mile long, with Seneca river, 
and thus with the Oswego canal. Its surface is three hundred and sixty- 
one feet abDve tide, and its greatest depth sixty -five feet. It possesses 
great interest from the salt wells around its shores, and a more miiaute 



44 

description will be given of it when treating of the sources of the salt 
W3.ter. 

Otisco Lake is about three miles and three-quarters long, and a little 
more than half a mile in width. It is of no great depth, and occupies a 
part of Nine Mile creek valley, which is here excavated in shales of the 
Hamilton group. Situated deep within hills that rise abruptly from its 
waters, ten or twelve hundred feet, it present pictures of great beauty, as 
it is seen from the various points of view these hilLs afford. Its surface is 
seven hundred and seventy-two and a half feet above tide. 

Skaneateles Lake, rounds off the southwest corner of the county, and 
has, near its south end, the point of junction of Onondaga, Cayuga and 
Cortland counties. It is, perhaps, the most beautiful sheet of watef in 
Central New York. Its general course is from north-west to south-east, 
and it is sixteen miles long. The average width is more than a mile. Its 
surface is eight hundred and sixty feet above tide. At the north end, and 
for about half its length, the land slopes gently to the water, and is in a 
high state of cultivation, dotted with first class farm buildings, and the 
whole landscape presents objects of beauty, such as the eye loves long to dwell 
upon. The southern half of the lake is enclosed between high and abrupt 
hills, that rise nearly two thousand feet above tide. Between these hills 
the lake is narrower than it is to the north, and the shadows that are east 
by the dark forests that still stand on the precipices, give the waters a deep 
blue appearance, which is heightened and intensified by their great depth 
and perfect purity. This lake is an excavation in the Hamilton group, 
and is three hundred and twenty feet deep, about midway of its length. 
The Tully limestone is seen outcropping on both its sides, for six or seven 
miles from its southern extremity, in masses nearly or quite twenty feet 
thick, and on a line nearly three hundred feet above the water. This lake 
has been navigated by steamboats at different times, but the demands of 
business have not been sufiicient to make them profitable. 

Cross Lake, is a shallow body of water, lying on the west bounds of 
the county, and takes its name from the fact that the Seneca river runs 
through, or across it, entering the west side, near the south end, and pass- 
ing out of the lake on the east side, opposite the point of entrance. It is 
about five miles long, from north to south, and of an average width of one 
mile. The shores are low and marshy ; the bottom is a bed of marl, pre- 
cipitated from the calcareous matter brought down by the Seneca river. 

Besides these lakes, there are many ponds, that perhaps deserve notice. 
In the town of Manlius, on lot fifty-six, are two remarkable bodies of water/* 
called by the various names of "Crater Lakes," "Green Lakes," and 
sometimes one of them is called " Lake Sodom." They are near each 
other, in the same valley, and are connected by a small brook, which flows 
from the southwest, or upper, to the lower pond. The upper one, or Lake 
Sodom, which is by far the most interesting, is nearly circular, having a 
diameter of a quarter of a mile, and a depth of water of one hundred and 
fifty-six feet. The surface being one hundred and fifty feet below the top 



45 

of the banks, that in a circular form surround it, except on one side, makes 
the whole excavation over three hundred feet in depth. 

Lake Sodom is forty-four feet above Onondaga lake. The lower pond 
is quite like the upper, except in its form, having a prolongation on its 
eastern side, running for nearly half a mile between gradually declining 
hills. It is one hundred and sixty-five feet deep. Both these bodies of 
water are in the gypseous rocks, and a quarry of this mineral is worked 
on the banks of one of them. To these rocks the waters owe their pecu- 
liar characteristics. Dr. Emmons found in a gallon, one hundred grains of 
saline matter, a large part of which was sulphate of lime, "with a sufficient 
quantity of crenate of lime to impart a bitter taste." Prof. Silliman says 
of Lake Sodom : " The bottom is a grass green slate ; the sides white 
shell marl, and the brim black vegetable mold ; the waters perfectly limpid. 
The whole appears to the eye like a rich porcelain bowl, filled with limpid 
nectar. But to the tasteAt is the Harrowgate water." Dr. Beck says, that 
" the water drawn from the bottom of the pond, is strongly charged with 
sulphuret of hydrogen. It blackened silver powerfully, and gave copious 
precipitates with solutions of oxalates of ammonia and muriate of barytes, 
indicating the presence of sulpureted hydrogen and sulphate of lime. Its 
specific gravity was scarcely above distilled water, and it contained not 
even a trace of iron. Thus we have here a spacious sulphur bath ; a fact 
which exhibits, in a most striking manner, the extent and power of the 
agency concerned in the evolution of this gas." These ponds are favorite 
resorts for parties of pleasure, and insignificant as the upper one is, in size, 
such are its surroundings, united with its colored waters, that there are 
but few single points where the eye takes in at a glance, more that excites 
wonder, mingled with delight. Approaching this crater-shaped basin from 
the north, we pass through fields of grain and grass, for half a mile, of 
more, from the road that runs along the south side of the canal, till sud- 
denly we are arrested by th« nearly perpendicular declivity that reaches 
from the level plateau we have been crossing, to the edge of the dark green 
waters, one huiidred and fifty feet below, and nearly under us. From this 
point, the basin appears to be an entire circle, the outlet being hidden from 
view by the curving form of the hills, and the dense forests of evergreen 
trees that yet remain. The whole is seen at once, and having still in mind 
the impressions made by smiling wheat fields, and rich pastures, the change 
of sensations is most rapid, and wide. An afternoon's sun and a brisk 
wind, conjoining to deepen shadows, and sway the trees, the visitor will 
find himself at once delighted and awed, and will wonder why a picture so 
interesting has not attracted more notice from tourists, and scientific inqui- 
rers. Various theories have been given of the origin of these ponds. The 
form of the upper suggests volcanic ; hence the name, crater. But the 
circular form, and precipitous batiks, are all that favors this supposition- 
There are no marks of fire, or signs of upheaval to be seen. The vernicn- 
lar lime projects, in undisturbed layers, from the sides, and the strata all 
around correspond. High geological authority has given subsidence of the 



46 

bottom, as the cause of the peculiar form of the basins. To sustain this 
view, the many sink holes of the gypseous rocks are cited, and their strong 
resemblance to one of these basins, is urged as proof of similar origin. 
This renders it necessary to suppose, that the immense mass of es^rth that 
once filled the basin, has been carried away by underground veins of water, 
or that it has been dissolved, and removed by the slow process of filtration. 
The resemblance to the small sinks fails, when we consider that a stream 
of water runs from these ponds, and that the circle is incomplete. The 
small sink holes have no water in them, and they are on l^nd high enough 
to permit the material that has disappeared to have been carried off by water. 
Full examination into all the facts, leads to the conclusion that Mr. Van- 
uxem is correct in calling the valley one of excavation. It is continuous, 
reaching from the canal, where it is wide-mouthed, for the length of both 
ponds, the space between, and on further to the south-west, in the direction 
of Fayetteville. Little difficulty would exist, but for the great depth of 
the ponds, the upper being one hundred and fifty-six, the other one hun- I 
dred and sixty-five feet deep. Aside from these depressions filled with 
water, the whole valley presents nothing to mark it as differing greatly 
from many others that have been scored out of the slope of the gypseous 
rocks. What should cause such deep excavations — by what whirling of 
the waters the materials should have been removed, we do not fully know ; 
but it is easy to suppose that these soft rocks could as well be dissolved, 
and carried off, by a great body of water acting over the surface, as by the 
little rills that circulate under and through the earth. 

Having studied the series of rocks that should lie under these excava- 
tions, and calculated their dip from the points of their outcrop to the north, 
we find that the Niagara limestone cannot be far from two hundred feet 
below the surface of the water. This is a rock that is not easily dissolved, 
and must form an unbroken bed, within less than forty feet of the bottom 
of the deepest pond. This floor is in the way of any supposed subsidence, 
and disappearance of three hundred feet in thickness of the measures of 
the Salt group. Difficult as may be the supposition that this whole valley 
was made by water acting from above, it is still more unsatisfactory to sup- 
pose, that water acting below was adequate to the work. 

The Green lake, near Jamesville, has been before described, and it is 
Only necessary here to say, that it is situated higher, is excavated in the 
face of the Helderberg range, and is partly surrounded by these hard rocks 
which rise in perpendicular walls, while precipitous slopes take their place 
in the ponds in the gypseous shales, which are too soft, and liable to disin- 
tegration to stand upright. 

In the valley that runs from the Limestone to Butternut creek, there 
are some small ponds below the level of the large masses of gypsum that 
outcrop in the hills on both sides, that are similar in their general charac- 
teristics to Lake Sodom, but not so interesting. The wall of lime rocks 
that runs along south of these ponds, has many fissures and caves. Ono 
of these caves was formerly a place of resort, but is now closed from visi- 



47 

tors. Clark, in his Onondaga, describes it as follows : " Nathan Beckwith, 
in sinking a well about a mile east of Jamesville, in 1807, discovered a 
large cavern. It has been explored, to some extent, in a southwesterly 
direction, from the entrance at the well. The depth, at the entrance of 
the cavern, may be about twenty feet ; height of the cavern, at the entrance, 
about seven feet ; width, near five feet. These dimensions continue six or 
eight rods, when the space becomes contracted to a width just sufficient for 
a single person to pass through. It soon becomes broader. The size is 
very far from being uniform ; the top, in some places, being not more than 
three or four feet from the bottom. Dog-tooth spar, stalactites and sta- 
lagmites are numerous. A small stream of water runs along the bottom. 
The man who dug the well, while in the act of drilling a hole of some ten or 
twelve inches, saw his drill suddenly sunk into the cavity up to the bulge. 
Upon withdrawing the drill, a strong current of air came up and continued 
until the hole was sufficiently enlarged for the purposes of a well. The 
stream of air would instantly extinguish a lighted candle, and after it was 
enlarged, would keep coals alive and in a glow. A melancholy circum- 
stance is connected with the discovery of this cave. A young gentleman 
and lady residing in Cazenovia, and newly married, came out on a pleasure 
ride to see the cave. It was on a very warm day in the month of August. 
They descended into the cave and remained there three hours. They be- 
came completely chilled ; both were taken suddenly ill, and both died within 
one week from the day they entered the cave. Tiie entrance is_ now closed, 
so that there is no admittance to it. About two miles west of Jamesville, 
in the same geological formation, is another cave, that has never been 
thoroughly explored. The entrance is a mere fissure in the rock, about 
three by eight feet. There are traditions connected with this cave, which 
are, probably, without foundation, in fact, that a silver mine existed here ; ■ 
that tools used for mining purposes, a bar of solid silver, and a kettle of 
money had been found near the entrance. "Money diggers" have spent 
much time and labor in a fruitless search for these imaginary treasures. 

On the south side of the county, at the summits of the valleys, there are 
a number of small bodies of water. The principal of these is crossed by 
the county line, part of it lying in Cortland county. This pond is twelve 
hundred feet above tide, and discharges its waters south to the Susque- 
hanna. There is nothing of special importance demanding any further 
description of these waters. 

Near the old Seneca turnpike, on the line between this county and Madi- 
son, is what is known as Deep Spring. Its Indian name is Te-ungh-sat-a- 
yagh. Not far to the north of it is the line of the junction of the Marcel- 
lus Shales and the Corniferous limestone. This spring is a subterranean 
stream of considerable magnitude in wet weather, that here finds a seam in 
the lime rock into which it discharges and disappears. The shales above 
the stream, have fallen piece by piece into the water, and been carried 
away, forming a circular cavity about twenty feet deep. The waters appear 
but to disappear. The cavity is about sixty feet in diameter at the top, 



and slopes in steep banks to the water. On the north side, some artificial 
work has made it accessible. It is noted on the old maps as the starting 
point for important surveys. The banks have, still on them, large forest 
trees, marked with names of visitors, and dates, as far back as 1793. The 
Indian path from Oneida to Onondaga, passed near it, as did the first pub- 
lic road. In the Revolutionary war, a scouting party of six white mett, 
from Fort Schuyler, stopped at this spring to drink, carelessly leaving 
their arms on the bank without guard, A party of Indians arriving soon 
after, and finding the whites thus, accidentally, in their power, massacred 
them all. Arrow heads, hatchets, bullets, bayonets, and other evidences 
found in the vicinity, bear testimony of even more deadly affrays. Tradi- 
tion says, a severe battle was fought here during the Revolution.* 

MINERAL SPRINGS. 

Mineral springs are found at various points along the north side of the 
Helderberg range, and on the Salt Group. In the town of Manlius, a 
short distance south of the village of that name, there is a spring that has 
a strong sulphurous taste. By analysis it was found to contain " sulphu- 
reted hydrogen, carbonic acid, sulphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, 
carbonate of iron, and carbonate of lime. These waters are considered 
beneficial in cutaneous diseases, and are highly diuretic." "About a mile 
north of Manlius village, are three medicinal springs near each other, the 
waters of which are feebly charged with sulphureted hydrogen. They 
have a slightly saline taste, and contain sulphate of magnesia. Formerly 
these waters were considerably resorted to, and were known as Elk Horn 
Springs." 

Messina Springs are in the town of De "Witt, about three and a half 
miles east of Syracuse. They are three in number, about twenty feet 
apart. The waters rise through a limestone formation, having calcareous 
tufa on the surface. Temperature of the water, 50° F. It has a strong 
sulphurous taste, but is not so highly charged with the gas as other springs. 
When it has been exposed to the air, for a few hours, it becomes milky, 
no doubt in consequence of the decomposition of the sulphureted hydro- 
gen, and the subsidence of some of the less soluble salts. Its specific 
gravity is 1.00305 ; and its Qomposition, in a pint, is : 

Grains. 

Carbonate of lime, 1.85 

Sulphate of lime, 8.55 

Sulphate of magnesia, 1.36 

Chloride of calcium, » , 1.33 

13.09 
— [Beck.] 

Syracuse has a spring about two hundred yards from the salt well, which 
has. attracted some notice, and may yet be found of great value in the cure 
of diseases. Mr. Beck says, its waters are strongly charged with sulphu- 

* Cl!wk^s> OaoDdag»« 



49 

reted hydrogen gas, and that they contain some carbonic acid, together 
with a large proportion of saline matter. The water is perfectly transpa- 
rent, blackens salts of lead, but has scarcely more than a trace of oxide of 
iron. Its specific gravity is 1.01426. One pint contains : 

Grains. 

Carbonate of lime, with minute portions of oxide of iron and silica, 1.74 

Sulphate of lime, 7.97 

Chlorides of* calcium and magnesium, 1.07 

Chloride of sodium, 122.86 

133.64 

Another spfing^ quite similar, near the Salina well, he reports as having 
in one pint: 

Grains. 
Carbonate of lime, with minute portions of oxide of iron and silica, 0,58 

Sulphate of lime, 11.18 

Chlorides of calcium and magnesium, 0.96 

Chloride of sodium, 173.69 

186.41 

gaseoTis matters, sulphureted hydrogen, with a minute portion of car- 
bonic acid. He says of these waters, that they seem to be weak brines, 
charged with sulphureted hydrogen. 

These springs, within the bounds of the City of Syracnise, are not appre- 
ciated as they deserve. The bnsy scenes that surround them are not favora- 
ble to the erection of fine capacious " cures " for the sick, and there is no 
room for groves and sylvan walks around them. Nevertheless, the absolute 
curative qualities of the waters are here, and ready to be used. 

Besides the springs that have been noticed, there are several along the 
north side of the Helderberg range that are used by the people around 
them medicinally. Near Split Rock, about on the line between the towns 
of Onondaga and Camillus, is a small white sulphur spring that has been 
found of value in cutaneous diseases. There is a magnesium spring a little 
nortb of the village of Elbridge, that runs out of the vernicnlar rocks on 
the east side of Skaneateles creek ; its water acts as a vigorous cathartic. 
Just above this spring, gypsum has been quarried in small quantities. 
Sulphur springs in Camillus and Van Buren, and in other places, might 
be noticed, if space would allow. 



50 



CHAPTER III. 

SALT SPRINGS. 

The earliest history of these springs we have received from the Jesuit 
missionaries. Father Jerome Lallemant, in his "Relation^" says "the 
Onondagas have a very beautiful lake called Ganentaha, on the shores of 
which there are several salt springs, whose borders are always covered 
with very fine salt." To Father Simon Le Moine is due the credit of first 
bringing the salines into notice. He visited the Onondagas in 1654,. on a 
mission of peace, and from his " Relation" of his returning journey the 
following extract is made. Under date of August 16th, he says : " We 
arrive at the entrance of a small lake in a large half dried basin ; we taste 
the water of a spring that they [the Indians] durst not drink, saying that 
there is a demon in it, which renders it fetid. Having tasted it I found it 
a fountain of salt water ; and, in fact, we made salt from it, as natural as 
that from the sea, of which we carried a sample to Quebec." This account 
gives evidence that the natives had not made salt from the water. It is 
strange that the wild animals that then so abounded, great herds of deer, 
and what he called wild cattle, being seen, and many killed by the mis- 
sionaries' men, did not teach the Indians that these waters contained a 
condiment of great value. Salt "licks" must have abounded, and the 
constant visits of the deer to them, it would seem, should have furnished 
hints that would have led to the evaporation of these waters, and to the 
use of their contents. But it remained to Father Le Moine to exorcise the 
" demon," to whose dominion the superstitions of the children of the forest 
had given the spring, by the simple process of putting fire under a kettle. 
Thenceforth it was shown that a good spirit was there j and from this time 
salt must have come into use among the Indians. 

Frequent allusions are made after this date, by the Jesuit fathers, to the 
salt springs. In 1770 Onondaga salt was in common use among the Dela- 
ware Indians, and by that time traders were in the habit of bringing small 
quantities to Albany, along with their furs, as a curiosity.! But this was 
long after Le Moine had taught the Indians to make salt, and no account 
of its manufacture among them has been discovered during this period. 
Now it was to be found, says Judge Bowker, in the Indian huts, the 
women manufacturing it, and sending it to Quebec for sale. Sir William 
Johnson, some years before this, obtained a conveyance from the Indians 
" of a tract one mile in width, adjoining and including the entire lake," as 
appears from a letter of Comfort Tyler. If this was a good title, then Sir 
John Johnson, who succeeded his father. Sir William, lost by his loyalty 
to England, not only his principality on the 'Mohawk, but the more valu- 
able property of Onondaga Lake and its environs. 

The first account of the existence of these springs^ given by Father Le 

t Clark. 




'iililiiiiUiiiliiMi Ji i jiky^ii|SipiiiaEps|ss§^^ 



51 

Moine, was pronounced by the Dutch of New Amsterdam *' a Jesuit lie," 
and their successors appear to have regarded them as of little or no import- 
ance until after the Revolutionary war. 

Comfort Tyler, in 1788, was shown the spring by the Indians, and in the 
month of May of that year he made, in about nine hours, thirteen bushels 
of salt. His account of this first manufacture of salt by the race of men 
who now carry on the business, is &s follows : " The family wanting salt, 
obtained about a pound from the Indians, which they had made from the 
water of the springs upon the shore of the lake. They offered to discover 
the water to us. Accordingly I went with an Indian guide to the lake, 
taking along an iron kettle, of fifteen gallons capacity, which he placed in 
his canoe, and steered out of the mouth of Onondaga creek, easterly into 
a pass called Mud creek. After passing over the marsh, then overflowed 
by about three feet of water, and steering towards the bluff of hard land, 
since the village of Salina, he fastened his canoe, pointed to a hole appa- 
rently artificial, and said there was the salt." 

On the 12th of September following, the treaty of Fort Stanwix was 
made, by which it was stipulated that " the salt lake, and the lands for one 
mile around the same, shall forever remain for the common benefit of the 
people of the State of New York, and of the Onondagas, and their posterity, 
for the purpose of making salt." 

Thus the two races of men became tenants in common, of this property. 
A circumstance, curiously illustrating Indian ideas, grew out of this com- 
mon ownership. 

The white men at once took possession of the salt water at what was 
called Salina, now the first ward of Syracuse, and commenced the manufac- 
ture of salt. In 1794 Judge James Geddes constructed a "salt works" 
something more than a mile to the southwest of that point, across the 
marsh, or more properly what was then the head of the lake. 

The Indians took exception to this, saying that they owned one-half of 
the water, the white men the other half; and as the whites had taken 
possession on their side of the lake, they should keep away from what they 
called the Indian side. 

The subtleties of the white man's common law, that gave, as they thought, 
the whole to one of the owners, were incomprehensible to them. A council 
of the nation was called, and 'speeches, in which Indians delight so much, 
were made. Still the difficulty grew no less. Mr. Webster, who had mar- 
ried an Indian woman, and lived among her people, was kind enough to go 
and tell the Judge of the trouble, and to suggest the probability of a very 
unfriendly visit from his dark skinned neighbors. Too much had been 
done for the work to be abandoned, and resistance was out of the question ; 
so, valuable presents and conciliatory words were resorted to. Judge 
Geddes appeared before the council, and made his explanations, but could 
not remove the obstacle to friendly intercourse, by any eloquence he pos- 
sessed. The Indians did not really desire a quarrel, and they did want the 
valuable presents. But the clouds deepened, while sunshine was desired 



52 

by all parties, and things were fast assuming a threatening aspect, when a 
happy inspiration in the mind of a wise man, untied the knot. " We will 
adopt this pale face into our tribe, and then being one of us, he will have 
a right to make salt on our side of the lake." The proposition was adopted 
unanimously, and the new brother had the name Don-da-dah-gwah conferred 
on him, and by it the Indians ever after addressed him. Thenceforth he 
made his salt in peace. 

In 1795, July 28th, a treaty was made at Cayuga Bridge, by which the 
Indians sold their common interest in the salt water for certain annuities 
in money, and one hundred bushels of salt, to be delivered on the first day 
of June, every year thereafter. But to return to our history of the manu- 
facture of salt. 

In the year 1788 it is related of Asa Danforth, that he carried a kettle 
on his head from Onondaga Hollow to the spring at Salina, and with the 
help of Comfort Tyler, made salt, suspending the kettle by a chain from a 
pole, supported by two crotched posts. After they had a sufficient supply 
they hid the chain and kettle in the bushes until again wanted, and, in this 
way, all their salt was made, until the next year, 1779, when Nathaniel 
Loomis came by way of Oneida lake and river, with a few kettles, and 
during the following winter, he made from five to six hundred bushels, 
which sold for one dollar a bushel. The first kettles, set in an arch, were 
nsed by Jeremiah Gould. In 1793, Moses De Witt and William Van Vleck 
erected an arch with four kettles, and supplied the demand for the whole 
surrounding country. 

In 1798 " The Federal Company " was formed ; its members being Asa 
Danforth, Jedediah Sanger, Daniel Keeler, Thomas Hart, Ebenezer Butler, 
Elisha Alvord, and Hezebrial Olcott. 

This company erected a large building, capable of containing thirty-two 
kettles, set in blocks of four each. Perhaps, in this way, originated the 
term " block," which has ever since been applied to a salt manufactory 
where water is boiled in kettles. 

The first laws regulating the manufacture of salt, were passed in 1797; 
the State then assuming a control that it has never relinquished. The State 
demanded for the rent of land and the use of the water, four cents a bushel 
for all salt made, and required that ten bushels, at least, should be made 
in every kettle or pan used, and provision was made that in case any lessee 
should not use all the water there might be on his lot, the next neighbor 
might have the surplus, then the next, and bo ony until it was all used. 

William Stevens was appointed Superintendent on the 20th of June, 
1797, which office he held until his death. 

The powers given to the Superintendent were full, and the law entered into 
minute details in regard to the whole business of making and packing salt. 
The maximum price was fixed at sixty cents a bushel to citizens of the 
State, and the maker of the salt must either put it in the public store, or if 
he kept it in his own building, he must surrender the keys to the Superin- 
tendent. No salt oould be sold in the leased premises. One cent per 



53 

bushel was exacted by the State for storage, and the Superintendent was 
to take care to have always in store two thousand bushels the first year, 
and an additional five hundred for each year thereafter, which was to be 
ready to meet demands of citizens of this State. 

The block house that in 1794 had been constructed for defence, was used 
for the public storehouse. Clark, in his account of these matters, from 
which most of the particulars here given are derived, says, that the Super- 
intendent gave certificates of deposit of salt in this storehouse, and that 
these certificates passed from man to man like bank bills. 

The manufacture of salt continued to increase as the surrounding popu- 
lation increased, some of it finding a market in Canada. The rivers and 
lakes connected with Onondaga lake, furnished facilities for transportation 
in the summer, and in the winter sleighs came from the counties to the 
south bringing farm produce to exchange for salt. 

The time soon came when the Superintendent could not store all the 
salt; so in March, 1798, it was provided by law, that the manufacturers 
might account on oath, for the quantity made, and they were allowed to 
pay rent according to the capacity of their works at the rate of two cents 
per month, for every gallon of the capacity of their pans or kettles, and 
were released from the charge of four cents per bushel. Fifty-six pounds 
ws^s fixed as the weight of a bushel of salt. 

In 1799, another law was passed going more into details, even deter- 
mining the number of hoops on the barrels, the kind of timber of which 
they should be made, the seasoning of the barrels, and directing. that they 
must be water tight. The Superintendent was to weigh, deduct the tare, 
then brand the weight and quality, and put on the price per bushel that he 
judged the salt to be worth, and then brand his name on the wood. This 
salt, if jt went away by water, was to be shipped from the public wharf 
under a penalty of five dollars for every bushel not so shipped. The Su- 
perintendent was required to provide bins to keep each manufacturer's salt 
until it was inspected. 

These, or like minute regulations, continue to govern, and when their 
rigor has been lessened, it is due to the fact that the magnitude of the bu- 
siness has made it impracticable to enforce them. The opinion that buyer 
and seller are not competent to judge of the condition of salt, still runs 
through the laws regulating the selling of salt made from these waters. 
The inevitable consequences follow. The brand of the State officer is suf- 
ficient, and however inferior the condition may be in fact, this brand is the 
passport over the far prairies of the west. It is not known that any suit 
has been brought by any sufferer from inferior salt, against its maker, 
though the law requires that his name, as well as the superintendent's, 
should be on the package. 

Repeated tests have shown that salt made here, is equal to any known 
to commerce. This is the simple truth in regard to the greater part that 
has been manufactured, and it is probably true that every year less and 
less salt that is not iu good condition gets into market, but there were 



54 

complaints in years gone by, that we must believe were well founded. Had 
the business been put on the true basis in the beginning, or could it be 
placed there now, a vast amount of vexatious control would be avoided, and 
the name of the maker on the end of the package would have to signify 
something besides compliance with the terms of a very precise statute. 
Whoever then should sell salt not in good condition, might be made to an- 
swer in damages to the purchaser. Under the present system, if the salt 
maker can smuggle a few pounds of impurities into a barrel, he thinks, 
too often, that he has added to the coin in his purse, and no purchaser 
thinks of going behind the official certificate of good quality for redress. 
Even under this radically vicious system, there have always been a large 
•number of manufacturers who thought more of their own reputation than 
of the inspector's brand, and in many instances these men have had their 
reward in receiving prices above the general market. The great mass of 
the manufacturers would hail with satisfaction, any change that would re- 
sult in making it absolutely necessary for every one to produce the very 
best article possible. 

The law of 1799 required the Superintendent to report yearly to the 
Legislature. To this valuable provision we are indebted for much informa- 
tion and improvement. 

In 1806 we learn from one of thege reports, that 159,071 bushels were 
made. About 1806 or '7, a great advance was made by the construction 
of a block of ten kettles, by John Eiehardson. 

During Mr, Kirkpatrick's administration, as Superintendent, the well 
at Salina was dug out, twenty feet square, to the depth of thirty feet, each 
manufacturer having his own pump worked by hand, the water carried in 
spouts to his works. In 1810 water power was first used to raise the brine. 
Yellow brook was brought, in a canal, to turn the wheel. In 1812 a law 
was passed requiring the Superintendent to lay out two acres of land and 
lease the same, free of duty, if he thought proper, to induce an experiment 
to make salt by evaporation, without the use of fire. Thus was suggested 
a mode of manufacture that has now become general, and bids fair to exer- 
jcise an important influence on the whole business in future. 

In the year 1817 the duties levied by the State were raised to twelve 
and a half cents a bushel, at which rate they were continued until April 
20th, 1846, since which date they have been one cent a bus^hel, which is 
intended as sufficient to pay for superintendence, digging the wells, pump- 
ing the water, and conveying it to each manufactory in pipes. 

These waters have been a great source of revenue to the State, having 
paid into the treasury from 1825 to 1848, inclusive, $3,770,872.81, from 
which is to be deducted $609,935.54, for expenses during the time, leaving 
net no less a sum than $3,160,937.27. 

The whole amount of salt made from these waters since June 20th, 
1797, which is the date of the first leases, to the end of 1859, is 125,143,- 
710 bushels. 



55 

The crop of 1859, boiled and solar, amounted to 6,894,272 bushels ; of 
this there were 1,345,022 bushels made by solar evaporation. 
The average annual product, in bushels, was : 

During the ten years, from 1797 to 1806, inclusive, 78,000 

do do 1807 to 1816, do 267,000 

do do 1817 to 1826, do 608,000 

do do 1827 to 1836, do 1,594,000 

do do 1837 to 1846 do 3,058,000 

do do 1847 to 1856, do 5,083,000 

The Superintendent, Vivus W. Smith, Esq., in his report for 1858, from 
which this table is taken, estimates that the increase of the production will 
bring the average of the next period of ten years to 7,510,000 bushels ; 
that the maximum in 1866 will not be less than 10,000,000, and that at 
the same rate of increase, that is, fifty per cent, for each ten years, over 
the preceding, the next period would average 15,000,000 ; and the produc- 
tion of the year 1876 would be 20,000,000 of bushels. 

The manufacture of what is called solar salt — that is, salt made by 
evaporation, in wooden vats, without the aid of artificial heat, is increas- 
ing rapidly. 

It is estimated that there are now in use, and in the course of construc- 
tion, works of this kind sufiicient to produce nearly, or quite, 2,000,000 of 
bushels per annum. 

The salt, both boiled and solar, finds a ready market, and supplies the 
demands of " a tract of territory four degrees of latitude in breadth, on 
this meridian, and widening to ten, in the valley of the Mississippi, em- 
bracing the most densely populated and productive parts of the American 
Union, as well as the adjoining British Province of Canada West."* 

These salines, then, are not only of great interest to scientific men, but 
are of incalculable value to the people of many States. Their geographical 
position could hardly have been more fortunate. Mr. Smith says, in the 
report before quoted, " they are virtually at the point where the great lake 
marine discharges its bulky freights, destined for an eastern market, by 
canal or railway transportation, and requires a return commodity, to be 
conveyed at the lowest rates, in preference to not being taken at all. 
Instances have occurred during the year, in which salt has been taken to 
Buffalo from Syracuse for five cents per barrel, and five cents per barrel 
have been paid for it as ballast by the ship-owners on the lakes. The 
largest portion of our salt, shipped to Chicago and other points west during 
the year,*by Oswego and the Welland canal, has been carried the entire 
distance, for from eight to twelve cents per barrel. Onondaga salt may be 
purchased for a lower price in the ports of Lake Michigan than it can be 
at Cazenovia, twenty miles distant fi-om the works." 

In the year 1830 the first iron tubes were sunk, with a view to procure 
water from a greater depth. At sixty feet brine was found from twenty- 
five to thirty per cent stronger than that in the old well. Very soon many 

• Keport for 1858. 



56 

tubes W€re sunk, and for a long time all the salt water ha« been raised by 
pumps through these tubes, and then forced up and accumulated in reser- 
voirs, from which it flows in wooden pipes to the various manufactories. 
These pumpa are driven by water taken from the canal, or in cases where 
the water power cannot be had, they are driven by steam engines. 

For many years the State was paid by the bushel for pumping the water, 
but in time all the expenses were merged in the one cent a bushel, which 
now pays rent of land, as well as for the salt water at the works. 

The first " salt works " was Comfort Tyler's fifteen gallon kettle ; then 
came the four kettle " block ;" then the ten kettle block ; and now Thos. 
Spencer, Esq., makes salt in a block of one hu&dred and eight kettles of 
one hundred and twenty gallons capacity each. Mr. Spencer's manufac- 
tory is thought to be too long, and about fifty or sixty kettles is the favor- 
ite number for a block. ' 

From 1840 to 1842, inclusive, Mr. Spencer was Superintendent of the 
salt springs, and as such earned a high reputation. To the knowledge 
acquired in office, he adds that of a manufacturer for many years. He was 
employed by the proprietors of the salt waters of the valley of the Holston, 
Virginia, to put their works in operation, and is now extensively engaged 
in the manufacture of salt both there and here. 

Desirous of profiting by his knowledge, application was made to him, and 
the following letter was received in reply : 

Syeacfse, Julyy 1858. 
Geo. Geddes, Esq. : 

Pear Sir — In reply to yaur questions concerning the salt manufacture, 
etc., accept the following statements : 

The brine, as pumped from the several wells, is not of a uniform strength, 
and has been gradually becoming weaker for the past fifteen years. 

The hydrometer, or salometer, by which the strength of the brine is 
measured, marks one hundred degrees, pure fresh water being 0, or zero, 
and water fully saturated with salt, one hundred degrees. 

There are six springs at Syracuse, varying in depth from 270 to 330 ft., 
in alluvial deposit. The brine is found in a lower stratum of loose gravel, 
which rests upon a compact hard-pan. These springs furnish brine for the 
manufacture of about four millions bushels of salt annually, which require 
about 160 millions gallons of brine. The average strength of the brine 
from these wells is now about sixty-nine degrees. 

There are other springs at Salina and Li^^pool which furnish about one 
half as much brine as the above. Those at Salina are now of tlfe average 
strength of about sixty degrees, and at Liverpool about fifty-eight degrees. 

During the season of 1842, from May to October, the brine from the 
springs at Syracuse, averaged 11°, from Salina 78°, and from Liverpool 73°. 
This shows a depreciation in the strength of the brine for the past sixteen 
years, of 8° from the Syracuse springs, of IS'' from the Salina springs, 
and of 15" from the Liverpool springs. The quantity of salt, however, 
manufactured annually, has doubled during that time. Consequently the 



57 



draught upon our great salt basin, from which source we obtain our supply 
of brine, has increased in a like ratio. 

Whether or not the strength of the brine will continue to decrease in a 
similar ratio, is a difficult problem to solve and can only be determined bv 
time. 

I can best answer your question concerning the impurities and their 
proportions contained in the brine when pumped from the springs, by giving 
you the following analysis made by Dr. Lewis C. Beck, in 1837, at which 
time he was with Mr. Vanuxem and others, engaged in making the geologi- 
cal survey of the State. ~ 



LOCALITY OF WELLS OR 
SPRINGS. 



At Geddes... 
At Syracuse . 
At Salina . . . 
At Liverpool . 



S'E 



s o 

o = 

C r-l 






o 



138.55 0.06 0.10 0.044.93 0.79 2.03130.66 

139.53 0.07'0.U'0.02 5.69 0.46 0.83132.39 
146.50 0.09 0.17!o.044.72 0.6l|l.04140.02 

149.54 0.07,0.13,0.034.040.7711.72142.85 



861.39 
860.40 
863.41 
850. 39:1 



,000 
.000 
.000 
.000 



The brine is stronger now than when the above analyses were made, but 
it is presumed to contain the same proportion of impurities. 

The strength of the brine from the several localities at different periods, 
is as follows : 

June 1842. 



Springs at Geddes . . . 
do at Syracuse . . 
do at Salina. ... 
do at Liverpool . 



June 1840. 
50 deg. 
66 do 
58. do 
65 do 



June 1851. June 1863. July 1868, 



77 deg. 

78 do 
72 do 



74 deg. 
67 do 
70 do 



72 deg. 
67 do 

73 do 



69 deg. 
60 do 
66 do 



You ask for a description of the process of manufacturing salt by artifi- 
cial heat — the kind of erections necessary for the most advantageous 
process — their cost — the cost and kind of fuel, &c., &c. 

The manufactories (or salt blocks as they are called), are of various 
dimensions, varying from forty to more than one hundred kettles each. The 
kettles are mostly of the capacity of one hundred and twenty gallons, in 
form a half sphere, diameter four feet, made of cast iron, and weigh 
from six hundred to one thousand pounds each. These are suspended in 
two contiguous rows, on brick walls, with a suitable furnace or fire bed at 
one end of each row, and the chimney at the other end. 

The whole should be covered by a suitable building, with bins extending 
the entire length on both sides, to store the salt and protect it from the 
weather, until it shall be ready to be packed in barrels, for market. 

Wood is now mostly used for fuel ; but the time is not remote, when 
coal will be chiefly used, as most economical. 

A ton of two thousand pounds of coal, either bituminous or anthracite, 
5 



58 

will produce about fifty bushels of salt ; and a cord of the best hard wood 
will yield a like quantity ; this gives an evaporation of eight pounds of 
brine to one of coal. 

About twenty blocks are using coal the present season, the cost of which, 
delivered ; is about three dollars and seventy-five cents per net ton of two 
thousand pounds. 

A block consisting of fifty kettles, is, I think, the most suitable size for 
the use of coal as fuel. Such a block will require about five tons of coal, 
each twenty-four hours, and would, therefore, produce about two hundred 
and fifty bushels of salt daily. 

The cost of such a block, with its appendages, is about five thousand 
dollars. 

There should be attached to each block three cisterns, each of sufficient 
capacity to contain as much brine as may be required for two days' use. 
This is necessary for the purpose of affording sufficient time to precipitate 
the impurities by chemical agents, before it shall be supplied to the kettles. 

Caustic lime was formerly allowed to be used for the purpose of cleansing 
the brine from a portion of its impurities, but its use is now prohibited. 
It was frequently used by the operatives, in such profuse quantities, that 
it was found to produce an impurity much more injurious to the quality of 
the salt, than that which it expelled. Alum is now required to be used in 
the place of lime, and its beneficial effects are very obvious. 

This change was brought about at the suggestion of Prof. Geo. H. Cook, 
a very competent chemist, who was employed by the State for the purpose 
of devising some method of improving the quality of our salt ; and those 
manufacturers who adhere most strictly to his instructions, excel in the 
article manufactured by them. Much, however, depends upon the skill 
exercised by the workmen employed in the various manipulations of the 
brine, after it is supplied to the kettles ; and to the difference in the skill 
and care exercised by them, may be attributed the great difference in the 
quality of the salt produced. 

In reply to your question " How shall a person judge of the quality of 
salt?" The simplest method is to take pure water and saturate it with 
the salt to be tested, which for any given quantity of salt will require 
twice and a half of its weight of water, and stir it until the salt is fully 
dissolved. If the salt is combined with impurities, the solution will at 
first have a milky appearance, but after remaining at rest a few hours, -the 
impurities will settle to the bottom of the tumbler or other vessel in which 
the solution is contained ; but if the salt is pure, the solution will be 
transparent, and there will be no sediment. 

It is more difficult to give a satisfactory reply to your question concern- 
ing the source of the brine. We only know that we penetrate the earth in 
alluvial deposit, at various points bordering upon the Onondaga lake, to the 
depth of from one hundred to four hundred feet, and find the brine in a 
deposit of gravel which rests upon a hard-pan (impervious to water) which 



59 

seems to form the floor or bottom of our great salt basin. All beyond this 
is mere conjecture. 

Eminent geologists who have devoted much time in investigating this 
subject, have, I believe, uniformly arrived at the conclusion that the source 
from which our brine is derived, is buried deep beneath the mountains or 
hills south of us, and is conveyed to the points where we find it, by sub- 
terranean currents of water, which have passed through the saliferous 
material and dissolved it. 

I have, however, formed a different opinion, which I give with much 
diffidence, as it is opposed to the theory adopted by men of science, whose 
opinions are entitled to much respect. 

I am strongly inclined to the opinion that there is deposited, immedi- 
ately beneath the Onondaga lake, a solid mass of salt rock, which is being 
gradually dissolved, and flows to the points where we find our brine. This 
salt rock is overlaid by a heavy sedimentary deposit, which forms the bot- 
tom of the lake, and which prevents the salt from coming in contact with 
its waters. 

This theory which locates the salt rock in the valley, instead of beneath 
the limestone hills south of us, is analagous to the salt springs in the valley 
of the Holstou, in southwestern Virginia, and those in the valley of the 
Weaver, near Liverpool, England ; in both of which places the brine is 
found in immediate contact with salt rock, and is, consequently, nearly or 
quite, fully saturated with salt, when it is pumped up and supplied to the 
boiling works, at from 96^ to 100° of strength ; and wells have been sunk 
near the shore of our lake, which have, for a while, furnished brine of 80° 
of strength ; and I know of no other salt springs, excepting those of the 
above named three localities, the brine of which will approxiniate these in 
strength. 

The salt rock, in the valley of the Holston, is found in a valley less than 
a mile wide, on either side of which, abrupt mountains of limestone rise to 
the height of several hundred feet. 

The salt rock is immediately overlaid by about two hundred feet of beau- 
tiful white gypsum, and this is covered by about twenty feet of clay. 

This mass of rock salt is of unknown thickness. It has been penetrated 
about one hundred and fifty feet without passing through it. 

The salt rock in the valley of the Weaver is found at a depth from the 
surface of from 200 to 250 feet, and the brine nearly, or quite, saturated 
with salt, is pumped from the rock-head, and supplied to the extensive 
manufactories, where from twenty-five to thirty millions bushels of salt, is 
produced annually, and sent down the Weaver to Liverpool, from whence 
it is exported to all parts of the world, where it can find a market. 

The comparative purity of several varieties of salt may be learned by 
the following analysis by Prof. Greo. H. Cook : 



60 





a 
1 

It 


1 

B 
d 


Cheshire. 


DlETJZE. 


Onondaga. 




■i 

o 


a 

o 

a 

g 

o 
■ O 


« 

o 

OQ 


a 

.2 

<u 




i 

m 


'o 


Percentage of moisture 


3.75 


8.00 


2.20 


1.10 


0.70 


0.90 


0.30 


3.00 


1.80 


Percentage chl. of sodium .... 


96.43 


98.51 
1.26 
0.23 


97.61 
0.20 
0.17 


97.55 
0.13 
0.12 


98.61 
O.Ol 
0.03 


98.48 


97.42 


98.14 
0.02 
0.02 


98.84 
0.01 


do do magnesium 


0.73 


0.26 
0.04 
1.22 


0.20 
0.68 
1.70 


0.01 


do do liuie 

do insoluble matter . . 


2.04 
0.35 




2.02 


2.20 


1.35 


1.82 


1.14 


















Total 


100. no 


lOO.Oo'iin in 


100.00 


lOO.OOinn in 


lOO.Oo'inn "n 


100.00 

















I have also been induced to adopt this theory, from the peculiar forma- 
tion of the shores and bottom of the lake. On all sides, from one-eighth 
to one-fourth of a mile from the water's edge, the water is so shallow that 
a man may wade that distance and keep his head above water. At this 
point there is uniformly a precipitous bank, where the water is from fifteen 
to twenty-five feet deep. Beyond this point the water deepens very gradu- 
ally, until you reach the center of the lake, which is about sixty feet deep. 

I cannot account for this precipitous bank, at that distance from the 
shore, upon any other theory than that it inarks the outline of the bed of 
rock salt, which, as it is gradually being dissolved, allows the loose and 
soft alluvial deposit, by which it is overlaid, to settle down, by which means 
this abrupt bank is formed and preserved. Otherwise I cannot perceive 
why the sediment, which has been accumulating for ages, should not have 
been deposited more uniformly from the shore to the center of the lake. 

This is, however, but an opinion, unsupported by facts ; and I have long 
since learned not to be offended with any one for entertaining an opinion 
different from my own, on any subject. 

Respectfully yours, 

THOS. SPENCER. 

The peculiar shape of the bottom of the lake alluded to by Mr. Spen- 
cer, seems to have escaped the observation of most writers who have specu- 
lated in regard to the origin of the salt water. No notice of this unique 
formation of sedimentary matter has been found in the State reports. 

Soundings on the north shore beginning at the water's edge, give 



At 500 feet 




3.5 


feet depth 


do 200 feet farther out, 


6. 


do 


do 40 feet 


do 


23. 


do 


do 20 feet 


do 


25. 


do 


do 40 feet 


do 


27. 


do 


do 60 feet 


do 


32.5 


do 


do 60 feet 


do 


39.5 


do 


In the middle 


of the lake 


55. 


do 



Opposite a point two miles from the east end of the lake, the water was 



61 

65 feet deep in the middle. At Liverpool, three miles from the east end, 
the depth was 55 feet. Many soundings have been made, and the general 
depth is 55 feet. Once away from the foot of the abrupt bank, and the 
bottom is so level that the deepest place is only ten feet more than the 
shallowest, and this depression of ten feet is approached very gradually. 

The general form of the cross section may be stated as follows : Seven 
hundred feet from the water's edge, it has become six feet deep, covering a 
perfectly regular inclination of the bottom ; then in forty feet the waters 
deepen to twenty-three, giving seventeen feet increase of water, nearly one 
foot vertical to two horizontal, quite as steep as we could expect the bank 
would stand under water. From this point, for twenty feet, the water 
deepens but two feet, the next forty but two feet, the next sixty but five 
and a half, or nearly one foot in ten, the next sixty seven feet, or a little 
more than one in ten. Thus we have an abrupt bank until we get a depth 
of twenty-three feet, then a much more gradual slope until the level bot- 
tom is reached. Ten or fifteen feet of the bed of this lake, is marl, that 
has been precipitated from the water, and this marl lies on sand and clay 
with some strata of gravel. 

Every boring that has been made within this basin gives this general re- 
sult, the only variations being in the thickness of the several strata, not in 
their character. The well near the road that crosses the beach at the head 
of the lake, was intended to be in the middle of the valley. The tube was 
sunk 414 feet through the following strata : 

White and beach sand 34 feet. 

Blue clay 100 do 

Light colored clay 48 do 

Sand, coarse enough for mortar 209 do 

Clear, gravel , = 6 do 

Quicksand 11 do 

Cemented gravel 2 do 

Red clay 3 do 

Bed clay (hard) 1 do 

The bottom of this well is nearly fifty feet below the surface of the sea. 
At 134 feet, a cedar log was encountered in a state of perfect preservation. 
This is not only a deep but an ancient valley. The fact of finding tim- 
ber in this deposit, goes to show that a large part of the excavation has 
been filled since the general emergence from the sea, and that a large part 
of the alluvium has been taken by the present water courses into the val- 
ley. This timber, and the many other pieces encountered from time to 
time by the drills, was probably brought into the lake by some of its tribu- 
taries. However this may be, the marl and clay that lies above the timber 
found, has been deposited by the waters of the lake. 

Mr. Spencer supposes that the fact, that it has now a level bottom, 
surrounded by steep banks of marl, clay, and sand, is only to be ac- 
counted for by a subsidence of a large part of the bottom, and that such 
subsidence is caused by the gradual dissolving of salt that lies under it. 



G2 

It is certain that water holding in solution earthy matter, never deposits it 
in the form we now find the bottom of this lake. 

Convenience has, thus far, caused all the drilling for salt water to be 
made around the lake, and the lesson taught by every experiment has been 
that there is no strong salt water to be found out of the alluvium in the 
valley, and the thicker the alluvium the better the prospect for strong 
water. The tube, -414 feet deep, was yielding the most valuable water, 
until it was, unfortunately, pushed down through the gravel to either a 
bed of clay or rock, by which means it was plugged up so that the salt 
water could not enter it. 

The water used to drive the machinery for pumping, is taken from the 
canal, audit is not convenient tc convey it great distances over the swampy 
grounds around the head of the lake. Experience has shown that pipes of 
wood, leading from the wells through which the water must be drawn, by 
producing a vacuum, cannot be used without being flooded with water. 
This flooding is accomplished by using fresh water, and thus the air leaks 
are stopped by allowing fresh water to run in, mingle with, and weaken 
the brine. This deep well is so far from the canal, that a pump driven 
by steam, would be necessary at the well to raise the water to a receiving 
reservoir, that should be high enough to allow the water to run to the force 
pump at the canal, and by thus flooding it, do away with the necessity of 
drawing the water there by suction. This well was sunk in 1851, and 
probably has not been recovered, as it may be by raising the tubing, as a 
sufficient supply of water has been accessible much nearer the pumps. 

Mr. Spencer's theory that the bottom of the lake has gradually subsided 
by the dissolving of rock salt, can only be tested by boring in the lake far 
enough from the steep bank to get above the rock salt, if there be any. 

By using the ice, a frame could easily be sunk, until it rested on the bot- 
tom of the lake, and then a tube could be carried down to any desired 
depth. The object is certainly worth the experiment. 

Away from this basin the State has been to the expense of drilling six 
hundred feet, a great part of the way through rock, and the expenditure 
was not an entire loss, for it taught us that rock salt was not to be looked 
for in that direction. 

It has been assumed by geologists that visited these salines before the 
deep well was sunk in 1851, that the floor of the valley would be found to 
be the Niagara limestone, that outcrops in Cicero, ten or eleven miles 
northeast from Syracuse. Careful levelings made for this report have re- 
sulted in showing that this rock, should be met at about three hundred feet 
below the surface of the lake, but the drills have shown that it is not there. 
It was dug out with the Clinton group, and, perhaps, most of the Medina 
sandstone, when the valley was excavated. The Niagara limestone, so 
familiar to every visitor to the " Falls," where it is eighty-one feet thick, 
cannot be more than six or seven feet thick on the sides of the basin of 
Onondaga lake. 



63 

Personal examination of the quarries in Cicero demonstrated the loose- 
ness of the seams and stratification. It would yield readily to the action 
of a powerful current of water. 

Mr. Vanuxem says (Superintendent's report, 1843, p. 34,) " the materials 
which fill this excavation, from all the borings and wells which have been 
made, show that they consist of sand, gravel, and other rolled stones, being 
chiefly round fragments of the dark colored limestone, which crops cut 
about nine miles north of Syracuse, and which passes under the red shale, 
in which, at all the salines the excavation was made ; also of the red sand- 
stone which borders Lake Ontario ; the gray sandstone which underlies the 
red ; the same which forms the high falls of Salmon river in Oswego county, 
and likewise fragments of primary rock, either of Canada or the north- 
eastern part of New York." 

The 414 feet well, goes down to the level of the Medina sandstone, which 
is a salt bearing rock, springs abounding in it, from the east side of Oswego 
county to Niagara river, from which salt has been made. In Hastings and 
Palermo, in Oswego county, salt springs are known, as well as at Sterling 
Center, and near Little Sodus bay.* 

The water drawn from this well either came from the face or within this 
rock. The hopper forms of part of the gypseous rocks lying south and above 
the salt springs, has been assumed as sufficient evidence of this rock hav- 
ing supplied all the saline materials for this basin ; the question now arises, 
may there not be some salt in the Medina sandstone, to which we are in 
part, at least, indebted for our strong water ? 

Prof. Hall ascribes the Medina sandstones, and the Onondaga salt group, 
to mud volcanos — "an overwhelming inundation of mud." He supposes 
that, in the broad expanse of a blue ocean, with its coral groves, among 
which lived the shells and crustaceous, and in sheltered nooks the crinoi- 
dcans reared their beautiful heads, "a huge mud volcano, charged with 
saline matter and corroding acids," suddenly bursts forth, destroys all 
these living things, and obliterates every vestige of their forms, leaving 
materials from which we, in these later ages, extract so much that enters 
into the enjoyment of life. Dr. Lewis C. Beck, in his Mineralogy of New 
York, published in 1842, reiterates an opinion previously expressed by him, 
" that of all the theories that have been proposed, to account for the for- 
mation of these springs, there is none so free from objection as that which 
ascribes it to the solution of beds of fossil salt." The arguments he uses 
to sustain his opinion, may be found at length in his work, and need not 
be repeated here. The question how the salt found its way into the basin 
of the lake is certainly one of interest ; but how to find the strongest water, 
in the greatest abundance, is one of much more practical importance just 
now, looking forward, as we are, to the time when ten, fifteen or twenty 
millions of bushels of salt can find a yearly market. 

The consumption of water in 1859, was not less than three hundred mil- 
lions of gallons ; and for the judicious manufacturing of salt, it should all 

* Emmons, 



64 

be evaporated in the two hundred and forty days of the eight warmest 
months. For the solar works, the average of good days for the season, is 
seventy.* 

All that has been learned from the past attempts to find water, whether 
successful or unsuccessful, we call to our aid, and try to deduce the laws 
that govern. 

They may be summed up as follows : Water, containing salt, is found 
by shallow digging on the shores of the lake, from the village of Liver- 
pool, which is three miles from the wells in the first ward of the city of 
Syracuse, all the way round the head of the lake, and on its southwest 
side, to within less than two miles of its lower end, the whole distance 
being more than nine miles. So strongly is the soil impregnated, that in 
many places no timber will grow. Samphire ( Salicornia herbacea), grows 
in patches many acres in extent. From these surface waters the first salt 
was made ; then wells were dug as deep as they could be conveniently 
curbed with timber ; then drills were resorted to, and pipes that would 
exclude surface water were pressed down, by which means stronger water 
was procured ; then the tubes were sent down deeper, and still stronger 
water was found. Around the head of the lake, where there is a wide 
marsh extending to the hills, the new wells were dug, nearer and nearer 
the lake, the strength of the water increasing as the middle of the valley 
and the lake were approached, until a tube was sent down to a stratum of 
clean gravel, 397 feet below the surface, where brine of the best quality 
was found, and in great abundance. The quality suddenly fell ofi" — owing, 
probably, to leaks in the line of suction logs that led for a great distance, 
and under a canal, to the pumps. The tubing was pressed down still farther 
to a hard red clay, 414 feet from the surface, where no water could enter 
the lower end. 

All the borings show that the valley is filled with drift and sedimentary 
matter, and timber is found at various depths down to 134 feet. The salt 
water rises in all the tubes, to about the level of the lake, and is strongest 
when the lake is highest. Does the increased pressure of deep water, force 
the strong brine from its source outward, where the tubes reach it ? The 
upper end of the lake is enveloped with salt water ; the district is four 
and a half miles long, one and a half wide, and of yet unknown depth ; 
why not put a tube in the center of the salt basin ? t 

MANNER OP DRILLING AND TUBING A WELL. 

The tubes now used by the State for raising salt water, are eight inches 
caliber, made from sugar maple logs, in sections eight feet long, and turned 

* Superiijtendent's Report, 1860, page 1. 

I Since the foregoing was written, the report of the Superintendent for January, 1860, has 
appeared, and I am gratified to see a suggestion therein at page 10, that the " great strength 
of Onondaga brines, oyer any other not in immediate contact with fossil salt, is due to the 
depth of the rock excavation which forms the natural Teservoir;" and the opinion is expressed 
that " if wells can be obtained at the depth of 600 feet, saturated water will be found." The 
Superintendent proposes to dig " a series of test wells to be carried across the salt basin from 
Salina ( 1st ward, Syracuse ) to Geddes, to ascertain its depth and the character of the sedi- 
mentary deposits." 



65 

in a lathe, to tlie tiniform thickness of three inches. These sections are cut 
off square at the ends, and a recess turned into the timber on the outside 
to receive a hand of iron, ten inches wide, and one-fourth of an inch thick 
which is to rest on, and confine the ends of two of these sections when they 
are joined together. A circular dowel of cast iron, three inches wide, is 
let into the ends of the sections, holding them together firmly, and exclud- 
ing all water from the joints. In the first place, a cast iron tube, three 
feet in length, is joined to a wooden section. This piece of iron tubing is 
sharp at the lower end, haA'ing the inside enlarged for a few inches up, 
leaving the outer diameter fourteen inches, to correspond with that of the 
wood. These sections are set up perpendicularly, and by a press, forced 
into the soil. 

When the tube has sunk down far enough for another section to be added, 
the press is withdrawn, the section put on, and again the press is applied. 
This process is continued as long as the tube can be sunk without removing 
the earth that is inside. When this point is reached, which sometimes is 
sixty or seventy feet from the surface, the drills are introduced, and by 
first cutting the earth fine, a bucket made of iron, with a valve at its lower 
end, will take hold of and lift the contents of the tube to the surface. 
When hard material is met, sharp drills are used to cut it up. The shape 
of the lower section, made of cast iron, is such that at the very end of the 
tube its caliber is nearly equal to the outer dimensions, and by using drills 
that have springs placed on one side of their stems, and edges that point 
outwards from the springs, holes may be cut through rock, that will be 
large enough to allow the tube to pass. Various tools are called into re- 
quisition to reach down and grasp substances, and to overcome the obsta- 
cles that are encountered, that would require drawings for their illustra- 
tion. Descriptions will not be attempted. The press that is used, is sim- 
ple, — heavy beams of timber supported by strong posts that are connected 
with a platform, through which the tube passes. This platform is loaded 
with stone, so that it will not lift, when the heavy iron screws that pass 
through the beams arc turned down on the yoke that presses the tube. 
The rods to which the drills are attached, are made of iron, in sections of 
convenient length, connected by screws. These drills are lifted by ropes 
worked by a steam engine, and let fall by means of a simple device, cut- 
ting and breaking up whatever is in the way, by their weight. 

This tubing costs, with the bands and dowels, seventy-five cents per lineal 
foot, and the whole cost of a well, aside from the use of tools, is from five 
to. six dollars per foot. 

A well once obtained, wooden tubes are connected, that lead to a pump 
which sucks up the water. The difficulties of having perfectly tight suc- 
tion pipes, have been alluded to. The injury to the manufacturer, caused 
by flooding these pipes and thus drawing in fresh water at every leak, is 
one they should not suffer. Lifting pumps should be placed over the wells 
that would raise the water high enough to cause it to run of its own gravity, 
to the forcing pumps that elevate it sufficiently, to supply the manufacto- 



66 

ries. Now, every stroke of the reciprocating double acting force and suc- 
tion pumps, has to overcome the inertia of the whole column of water, from 
the bottom of the well to the distributing reservoir. This inertia is so 
great in long pipes, that the pumps produce a vacuum at every stroke, and 
thus there is an inward pressure of the atmosphere of fifteen pounds to the 
square inch that drives air, or when flooded, water, into every c*revice and 
pore of the pipes. Lifting pumps at the wells moving slowly, with long 
strokes, would do away with much of the strain of the machinery, and 
remedy the present evil. When the wells are near the pump houses, shaft- 
ing can be carried to them at trifling expense. Small steam engines can be 
used at the wells that are too far off to use shafting with economy. 

THE WATER. 

Mr. Spencer's letter contains Prof. Beck's analysis of these waters as 
they are pumped from the wells. A description of the various constituents 
has been given by Prof. Cook, in his report for the year 1853. The sub- 
stance of his description, is as follows : 

Common salt, muriate of soda, or according to the modern system of 
chemical nomenclature, chloride, of sodium, contains 60.68 per cent of 
chlorine, and 39.32 of sodium. The specific gravity of salt, when solid 
and perfectly crystalized, is 2.165, which would give for a bushel (2150 
inches,) 168 pounds. The salt of commerce weighs from 36 to 80, 85, and 
rarely 90 pounds. 

Salt is a solid that melts at a bright red heat, and passes off without be- 
ing decomposed. It is without odor, color white, or transparent. It crys- 
talizes in cubes, from its solution in water, and when formed by rapid but 
quiet evaporation from the surface, it forms hopper-shaped crystals ; hot 
and saturated solutions, when cooled, frequently 2;ive long, slender, square 
prisms ; formed in hot solutions, agitated by boiling, the crystals are very 
small and broken into irregular shapes ; when rosin, soap, butter or any 
oily substance is added to brine, it will not form crystals, but by evapora- 
tion, deposit the salt in exceedingly fine grains. 

Salt usually attracts moisture from the air, but when pure, this attrac- 
tion is very slight. 

Chloride of calcium, formerly called muriate of lime, is a compound 
of chlorine and calcium, containing 63.35 per cent of the former, and 36.65 
of the latter. It is acrid, very sharp and bitter to the taste, and when 
exposed to the air attracts moisture rapidly. 

Chloride of magnesium, formerly called muriate of magnesia, is a 
compound of chlorine and magnesium, containing 73.6-1 per cent of the 
former, and 26.36 of the latter. 

If heated strongly it decomposes ; muriatic acid escaping and magnesia 
remaining. This decomposition often happens in the boiling process. 
When the brine in the kettles is dimished by boiling, a portion of the sur- 
face of the iron is exposed to the direct action of the fire, and becomes very 
hot. Any chloride of magnesium that may be in the scale on the inside of 



67 

the kettle above the brine is thus decomposed, the magnesia remaining in 
the salt. 

The chloride of magnesium is extremely bitter ; it absorbs moisture trom 
the air rapidly, and imparts the same quality to salt. This quality has 
given to the chlorides of calcium and magnesium the name of deliquescent 
chlorides. 

Sulphate of lime, called gypsum, and plaster, is a compound of sulphuric 
acid and lime, and contains a definite portion of water. It consists of 46.51 
per cent of sulphuric acid, 32.56 of lime, and 20.93 of water. Its specific 
gravity is 2.322. When dry it dissolves in about 500 parts of cold, and 
in 450 of boiling water. 

Oxide of iron is a compound of oxygen and iron. It is a red, tasteless 
insoluble substance, and apparently inert in its properties. When the 
brine is first pumped up, it is not perceptible, being combined with carbonic 
acid and dissolved. On being exposed to the air the carbonic acid escapes 
and the oxide is precipitated. Its precipitation is hastened by putting into 
the brine quick lime, alum, or common clay. 

The process of manufacturing, consists in removing the water by evapo- 
ration, and at the same time getting rid of all the impurities held in solu- 
tion. In the boiled salt this is accomplished, by first precipitating the 
oxide of iron in the cisterns connected with the works. Unless this oxide 
is removed, the salt will have a reddish color. The alum used for its pre- 
cipitation improves the grain of the salt, making it firmer and causing it 
to drain well. 

The sulphate of lime is precipitated as the point of saturation is ap- 
proached, by pans placed on the bottoms of the kettles, into which as it falls 
it is lifted out during the boiling of the water. The Mtterings, as they are 
called, that are thus removed are almost pure gypsum, " In boiling salt, 
the slow processes of nature are interfered with. The heat is so high that 
the precipitation of the sulphate of lime is rapid, and constant care in 
panning is necessary, or the kettles will soon be ' blocked ' with a crust of 
impurities three or four inches in thickness. This scale has to be removed 
every few days by mechanical means. The more soluble impurities also ' 
cannot be so well separated by the simple drainage to which this kind of 
salt is subjected."* 

After the salt commences forming, the panning ceases, and the water is 
boiled down to fifteen or twenty gallons, when the salt is removed and 
placed in a basket, on supports, over one side of the kettle, where it drains, 
until another kettle full has been made, when it is emptied into the bins, 
where the law requires it should remain at least fourteen days to drain 
before it is packed. Perfect draining is essential for salt used in curing 
meat, for its power to absorb the moisture from the meat must depend 
greatly upon the dryness of the salt. As the moisture of the meat is given 
off, the salt is absorbed, and enters into its substance ; or, to use the com- 
mon expression, "strikes in." To secure this striking in quickly, dry fine 

• Beck's Eeport of 1853, p. 23. 



68 

salt, whether made in kettles or in solar vats, ■vrill be found successful, i 
it is only pure. 

SOLAR SALT, 

This is the name given to salt that is made without the use of artificial 
heat. The structures for its manufacture consist of long parallel rows of 
shallow wooden vats, sixteen or eighteen feet wide, supported by many 
small posts. These rows of vats are divided into what are called deep 
rooms, lime rooms, and salt rooms. They are a,rranged in various ways, 
as the shape of the ground, or the fancy of owners may dictate. We have 
selected for our description the works of the " Salt Springs Solar Salt Com- 
pany." The water is drawn directly from the distributing reservoir into 
the deep rooms, which are about a quarter of a mile long. The water runs 
the whole length of a " string," and then is carried into the next parallel 
string by wooden pipes. It runs the whole length of this string back to 
opposite the place where it was first introduced ; then again it is sent into 
another, and another of these strings, and having thus been exposed to the 
sun and wind, in a sheet perhaps ten inches deep, and sixteen feet wide, 
for a whole mile, it has rid itself of the oxide of iron, has increased in 
strength from TO'^ to 84° of the salometer, and is ready to be carried into 
the lime rooms, where it deposits the sulphate of lime. It is kept running 
along these rooms, in a thinner sheet, until the small .cubes of salt are seen 
foi'ming. Saturation is now complete, and all the impurities have been pre- 
cipitated, that can be. The water thus concentrated, and freed from the 
lime and iron, is drawn into the salting rooms, where pure salt is rapidly 
deposited, having a coarse crystallzation, in the form of hoppers and cubes. 
There yet remain' in the brine, after the salt is removed, impurities more 
soluble than the salt, viz : the deliquescent chlorides. About one-third of 
all the vats are required for precipitating the impurities. The whole 
"field" is expected to yield fifty bushels to every cover of sixteen by 
eighteen feet. The word cover is derived from the movable roofs, or 
" covers," that in fair weather are shoved off, on ways, to allow the sun to 
reach the water. These covers have been adopted as the standard of 
measure ; and, in speaking of a salt field, it is said to have so many covers. 
Space is required for the covers when off the vats, and also for roads be- 
tween the strings, to cart away the salt. An acre of land requires sixty 
covers, costing about $30 each; thus the Cust is about $1,800 an acre, 
which will yield 3,000 bushels of salt in an ordinary season. The cost 
and space required are disadvantages that are fully met, by the cheapness 
of the manufacture when once the works are in operation. From four to 
five cents per bushel is paid for doing all the work involved, even to the 
shipping of the salt. 

In making this solar salt, Nature's process is imitated exactly ; and 
close watching of the changes of the weather, and cleanliness, is all that is 
necessary, with ordinary care, in transferring the brine to the different 
vats, and in the draining, to make the purest salt known. Formerly this 
salt was kiln-dried, and ground in common flouring mills for dairy pur- 



69 

poses, at considerable expense ; but recently a very simple mill has been 
invented, that grinds it without any drying by fire. Well drained in the 
store-house, it is put through the mills, and ground to any desirable fine- 
ness, for butter or table use, at^a cost of not over one cent a bushel. 

The coarse solar salt is in demand for packing provisions, as experience 
and abundant tests have shown its value. Now that it can be ground for 
so small a sum, it will be used for rubbing meat and for all packing except 
to "cap" the casks, which requires larger particles, that by dissolving 
slowly, will supply the waste from the brine, caused by the absorption of 
salt by the meat. 

Solar salt can only be made in hot weather^ and therefore the amount 
must be limited by the daily supply of water from the wells, unless reservoirs 
are constructed to accumulate water during the winter season. One earth 
reservoir has been constructed by the present Superintendent, Mr. Smith, 
that will hold water sufficient for six hundred thousand bushels of salt. 
More storage of this kind will soon be required. 

Prejudices have existed in regard to the value of our salt, which though 
fast passing away, still occasionally appear. 

Every little while our Agricultural Society gives some one's report of 
his, or her, process of making butter, with the assertion that Liverpool, 
England, must furnish the salt. Time will remove these prejudices, as it 
has those that once existed against English salt. Space cannot be spared 
to reproduce the proofs that again and again have been given to the public 
in print, that Onondaga salt is as good as any in the VNorld. It is perhaps 
sufficient to say that there is nothing new in our case. 

" Many of the fishermen on our coast imagine that salt made on the Med- 
iterranean coast of France, is better than any other for curing fish, and it 
is imported largely for that purpose." The French fishermen complained 
of this very salt, alleging that, that which was made on the Atlantic coast 
of France and Portugal, was the only kind that could be depended upon. 

The French government appointed a commission, as ours of this State 
has often done, to decide the matter. They reported that the one salt was 
as good as the other, only the Mediterranean salt is freer from dirt, and a 
little less deliquescent. At the manufacture of Dieuze, they put clay into 
th6 brine, until the color, required by the prejudices of their customers, 
is procured.* 

Prof. Emmons, some years since, at the request of the Secretary of the 
New York Agricultural Society, went into the market in Albany, and pro- 
cured several parcels of Onondaga salt, made by different manufacturers, 
and subjected them to analysis. 

The result was, he found, in one case, 92.980 parts of pure salt, in 95.019 
parts of the sample. In another, 97.466 in 99.415 ; in another, 95.819 in 
98.899; in another 95.113 in 97.135 ; and in another 98.886 in 99.900, 

These samples were from boiled and solar salt. He says, " It is evident 
from the foregoing analysis, that the salt of Salina contains no substance 

*Prof. Cook. 



70 , 

injurious to dairying purposes. The only source of danger is, that the salt] 
may be damp. Wet salt is entirely unsuitable for preserving animal sub- 
stances, inasmuch as the principal operation of salt, as a preserver, is duel 
to its power cf absorbing water from the material to be preserved ; hence] 
salt should be always dried." 

The impurities of the salt of Onondaga are not directly injurious, but 
they are not salt, and when weighed as such, they deduct so much from its 
value, and thus more of the impure salt is required to cure meat. 

Perfectly dried, and in sufficient quantities, Onondaga salt never fails to 
cure meat, if the process of packing is properly conducted. 

In closing this account of the salines of Onondaga county, and their pro- 
ducts, it is proper to say that many persons have supposed there was great 
loss of heat in the arches, and much money has been expended in trying to 
find some method for evaporating more water with a cord of wood or ton 
of coal. Thus far, little or no progress has been made in this directioij, 
for the very good reason that there is really less room for improvement 
than a stranger is apt to suppose. 

Prof. Cook made extensive investigations to determine the quantity of 
water evaporated with a given quantity of fuel, at Liverpool, England, 
Dieuze^and llotterdam, and found that Onondaga salt works were as 
economical as any known. More than fifty bushels of salt are made from 
a cord of wood ; Mr. Spencer has made in his works fifty-eight. Unless 
more than eight pounds of water can be evaporated with a pound of coal, 
by any proposed apparatus, it is not worth while to invest money in con- 
structing salt works, with the expectation of making more salt than is now 
made, for the same cost. 

These remarks appear called for, to warn those gentlemen who nearly 
every year come here to invest capital in improvements. Not that improve- 
ments cannot be made, but we start with the knowledge that at least eight 
pounds of water are now evaporated, with a pound of coal in a common 
salt block. 



CHAPTER IV. 

SOILS OP ONONDAGA. 

Soils are usually classified from the predominance of sand or clay, and 
are called sandy or clayey, as either. of these substances predominate. 
Where sand and clay are mixed with organic matter, the whole is called 
loam. If sand predominates in this mixture, it is usual to call the soil a 
sandy loam ; if clay, then a clayey loam. These are the general terms 
applied by farmers to soils, and many farms will be found to have all these 
varieties ; and if we know the rocks from which the sand and clay were 
derived, these general terms will, when applied to a particular farm, serve 
to give quite a definite idea of its value. 

Using then the terms, sandy, clayey, and sandy and clayey loams, as 
applicable to this county, a proper classification would be as follows : The 



71 

soils north of the Erie canal are uneven, sand abounding in large districts, 
while in others clay is in excess ; while in still larger areas they are mixed 
in the proportions that are best for keeping the soil from being too tena- 
fious by excess of clay, or too loose by excess of sand. Loamy soils 
abound in all the north half of the county, most of the materials being 
drift. 

A belt, lying along the south side of the Erie canal, and extending south 
to the Marcellus Shales, has less of drift, and the soil is more directly due 
to the decomposition of the underlying rocks of the Salt group and the 
Helderberg range. These soils come under the name of clayey loams. 
The rest of the county, to the south, is divided by valleys and ranges of 
hills, whose general course is north and south. The valleys are covered 
with drift and alluvium, while the hills have soils that are principally made 
from the decomposition of the shales that underlie them, constituting a 
soil that would best be classed as a loam. 

The drift of the northern part of this county is derived from the rocks 
that outcrop here, and from those that are to be seen still further to the 
north. The Medina sandstone contributes largely, and we find a very con- 
siderable proportion of granitic rocks in the soil. The decomposing felspar 
and mica of the granite, gives alkalies to the soil, which are so combined 
with silica that they are comparatively unaffected by the water, and are 
not carried off by it, but are retained in the soil for the use of plants. 
[Emmons.) 

The lime of the Helderberg range, constitutes the principal part of the 
drift of the southern valleys, and therefore wheat is produced in them with 
profit. The late David Thomas, in a letter to Dr. Emmons, says : " Gren- 
erally it is good wheat land as far south as the detritus from our limestone 
formations has been abundantly spread. The current that swept over 
this country took a southerly direction, and wherever the slate rocks were 
exposed to its action, a portion of them is mixed with the soil ; thus, near 
such localities, the soil is less calcareous and less favorable to wheat. The 
drift from our rocks grows less and less as we go south, and as it grows 
scarcer, the fragments have become more worn and rounded in their pro- 
gress, giving a less and less proportion of the diluvial formation. About 
twenty miles south of the Pennsylvania line, every trace of our rocks dis- 
appears. The people residing on the Susquehanna, used to supply them- 
selves with lime by gathering and burning small fragments of rounded stone 
from the shores, much of it not larger than gravel, and which doubtless 
were swept from this district." 

Of the formation of soils. Dr. Emmons says : " The composition, lia- 
bility to solution, the structure and position of rocks, have an important 
bearing on the discussion of the formation of soils. Each of the groups 
respectively impart to the overlying soils, some of their distinguishing 
characteristics, and in a good measure make them what they are. Trans- 
porting agents modify them by intermingling soils that have originated 
from rocks that are to be found at a distance. Unless the beds of drift 



72 

are deep, it will be found that tte underlying rocks give a stronger char- 
acter to the soft materials than is usually supposed. Limestones are liable 
to a constant loss of material by the solvent properties of rain water, which 
holds carbonic acid in solution. This is favored by rough and uneven sur- 
faces on which water will stand. Polished surfaces are acted oi) but little. 
The shales and slates disintegrate rapidly — water and frost are the agents." 
Of the wearing down of silicioiis limestones, or calareous sandstones, he 
says : " The lime dissolves out, leaving the saud on the surface, which 
falls off and leaves a new surface, from which the lime is dissolved, and the 
sand falls. The dissolved lime, however, does not all pass into and remain 
in the soil, but is carried down and forms, very frequently with other mate- 
rials, a hard pan or pudding stone, or concretions, the lime acting as a 
cement. In other instances it percolates into and through the rock and 
forms stalactites, veins, or other deposits. Lime is removed from the soil 
in the same manner that it is from the rocks. Thus this element is removed 
by vegetation and the ordinary action of rain water." 

These extracts, with what else has been said as to the formation of soils, 
it is judged will be suiFicient for a general description of our soils. The 
composition of the rocks from which they are formed being given else- 
where, it is thought that a careful study of their constituents, with some 
discrimination on the part of our practical farmers, with reference to drift 
and alluvial formations, will enable them to know, with sufficient certainty, 
what their lands are composed of, without special analysis. 

FOREST TREES. 

K. great variety of forest trees were indigenous in Onondaga county. 
The forests here were originally dense, and the timber generally heavy. 
Large forests of white pine, PlNUS, strohus, grew in the north part of the 
county, and smaller areas of this valuable timber were found along the base 
of the Helderberg range, and a few scattering trees grew even above the 
corniferous limestone. There were some valuable pines in the swamps 
of the southern towns, but not enough to supply their demand. Along 
the south line of the Grypseous Shales, were some trees of uncommon di- 
mensions. Near the northeast corner of the town of Camillus, one was 
cut down that measured 230 feet as it lay on the ground ; another near 
this, gave 154 feet of saw logs. They grew on land now owned by Whee- 
ler Truesdell. 

White cedar, cupressus, thuyoides, abounded in the swamps north of 
the Helderberg range, and in small quantities among the pines in the south- 
ern swamps. This timber has furnished the materials for a large part of 
the rail fences in this county. 

Hemlock, Pinus canadensis, was very plenty in almost every part of 
the county, but was most abundant in the northern half. This valuable 
timber has been used extensively for building, fencing, and making plank 
roads. Two varieties of spruce, Pinus nigra, and Pinus alba, are found 
in the swamps, but not in size sufficient to make it of any great value. 



73 

Tamai-ack, Pinus pendula, is found in the same locality with the 
spruce. 

Red cedar, Juniperus virginiana^ of which btit few specimens can now 
be found growing, was formerly procured in small quantities around the 
head of Skaneatelas lake, and used principally about the village of Skane- 
atelas for fence posts. 

White oak, Querctis alha^ grows in abundance on the limestone soils. 
The gypseous shales were generally covered with a stinted growth of white 
oak, for the whole width of the county, east and west. The town of Otisco 
had large forests of this valuable timber, some parts of which yet remain. 

Some very large oaks were found on the low lands north of the Erie 
canal, and scattered among the scrub oaks of the gypseous shales. One of 
them, at Fairmount, was saved when the other timber was cut away, as a 
monument; but, deprived of its surroundings, it soon died, and of neces- 
sity was cut down. The stump was five feet in diameter, and forty feet 
above, where it was somewhat elliptical in form ; its two diameters mea- 
sured, the one four feet and six inches, the other three feet and ten inches. 
A block cut from this tree is still in existence. 

Black oak, Quercus tinctoria, and some ©ther varieties, were also found 
in this county. Two species of hickory. Carta alba, and Carta tomen- 
tosa, grew in abundance on the lime rocks with the oaks. Red elm, Ulmus 
fulva, and iron wood, Ostrta virginica, are found on the same soils; 
while the wet lands 3,bound in the swamp white elm, Ulmus americana, 
black ash, Fraximas sambucifolia ; black birch, Betula lenta; swamp 
white oak, Querctjs li color ; and the sycamore, Platanus occidentalis. 

The tulip tree or white wood, Liriodendron Tulipifera; thebasswood, 
SiLiA americana; sugar maple, Acer saccharinum; beech, Fagus fer^ 
ruginea; white ash, Fraximus americana; the cherry, Cerasus serotina; 
and the chestnut, Castanea vesca, abound on the lime rocks, and on the 
hills of the south part of the county. 

There were many other kinds of timber found in the county, but the 
most important have been given. The progress of improvement has swept 
away these once noble forests, so that not enough now remain to meet the 
demand for fuel. 

Already the coal mines of Pennsylvania are largely drawn upon, not 
only by the manufacturers of salt, and the inhabitants of the city of Syra- 
cuse, and the surrounding villages, but also by the farmers. Timber and 
lumber for building purposes can no longer be had in any considerable 
quantities of our own growth, and large importations of pine lumber are 
made to us from the shores of the rivers that empty into Saginaw bay. Oak 
is also brought from the western lakes. 

From the first settlement of the county, the "oak lands," as they are 
called by the farmers, have been proverbial for their ability to produce 
wheat ; and that belt of land, once covered with oak and hickory, is the 



74 

true wheat land, while the beech and maple lands are best adapted tb^graz- 
ing, and the pine lands are generally well suited to both grain and grass. 

Dr. Emmons has analysed the ash of many specimens of forest trees, 
and gives, as the results for the sap wood, heart wood, outside bark, and 
inside bark, in separate columns. His investigations are interesting, but 
would take too much room in this place, and will be used only to show the 
per centage of potash and lime, that he found in the outside wood of some 
of the kinds of timber, growing in the three divisions of the county, viz : 
the northern, central, and southern. 

Potash. Lime. 

Northern division represented by swamp white oak,. . . . 20.49 52.26 

do do elm, 15.85 20.08 

Middle do do upland white oak,. .. . 13.41 30.85 

do do hickory 7.47 38.26 

Southern do do beech, .» ; 12.13 31.56 

do do sugar maple,. ..... . 8.77 49.33 

do do basswood, 10.12 41.92 

The swamp white oak and the elm abound in potash, while the upland 
white oak and hickory have much less. The beech, maple and basswood, 
average but little more than ten per cent of potash. The elm has only 
twenty per cent of lime, while the swamp oak has over fifty-two. The low 
lands abound in potash and lime, but in the uplands there is much less 
potash. 



75 





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79 

CLIMATE. 

The climate of a country is to be determined, by its latitude and eleva- 
tion, modified in some degree by the configuration of the surface, proximity 
to bodies of water, nature of the soil, and extent of cultivation of its own 
surface, and the country around it. All these conditions influence our cli- 
mate in some degree. 

At mid-ocean, between the latitudes 30° and 50°, Mr. Kirwan found that 
the temperature diminished about nine-tenths of a degree of the thermom- 
eter for every degree of latitude. This may be taken, then, as the exact 
measure of the influence of latitude. The effect of elevation, Mr. Coffin 
makes equal to one degree of the thermometer for every 350 feet, but other 
observers have given 300 feet to a degree. Pompey Hill is 1743 feet above 
tide, Onondaga Academy 400, the difference in elevation is 1343 feet. The 
observed average temperature at Pompey Academy for seventeen years is 
forty-two deg. eighty-four hundredths ; of Onondaga, for sixteen years is 
forty-seven deg. eighteen hundredths ; the difference four deg. thirty-four 
hundredths, gives a degree of the thermometer for every 309-g feet. 

In Mr. Coffin's tables, he was troubled with Pompey as being too cold for 
its latitude and elevation. The difficulty grew out of his taking the eleva- 
tion to be 1300 feet instead of 1743. This error being corrected, Pompey 
is no longer an exception to the rule he applies. 

The influence of elevation on the temperature was illustrated on the 15th 
day of September, 1859. The extreme cold killed everything growing on 
the hilly part of the county. Personal observation in the towns of Otisco, 
Tully, Fabius and Pompey, proved that the injury was frightful. Descend- 
ing the hills towards evening to the town of De Witt, it was found that 
the leaves of unharvested tobacco showed slight injury, which grew less 
and less as the elevation diminished. 

Below the Helderberg range the effects of the frost was trifling. The 
outer ends of the corn leaves were touched as by a breath of fire, but the 
husks of the ears were safe, and the crop went on to maturity. On the 
great level north of the Erie canal, except in a few localities, the crops 
were scarcely affected, and the ameliorating influence of Oneida lake, com- 
bined with diminished elevation, was a perfect protection to vegetation on its 
borders. Every other large body of water did good service to the farmers 
that morning. In the vicinity of Skaneateles lake, Lima beans were the 
only vegetables touched. A month elapsed before we had another such a 
cold night. 

Light colored and sandy soils, especially if they contain considerable 
vegetable matter, suffer more from late spring, and early autumn frosts, 
than darker ones. 

Returns from fifty-eight different localities, scattered over this State, 
give, as their mean temperature, 46° ^^^^j-. The mean of Onondaga valley 
is 47° iVV> which is 0° -f-^-jj above the average of the State. Pompey has 
a mean temperature of 42° -^-^f^, being 3° -^Vj less than the mean of the 



80 

State. The climate of Onondaga Academy may be safely taken as that 
of all the country north of the canal, while that of Pompey may, with 
some allowance, be taken for that lying in the southern part of the county, 
while the mean between, may be assumed as the average of that belt that 
lies on the salt group, Helderberg range, and the Marcellus shales. The 
range of temperature in Onondaga county from north to south is very 
great, the cold becoming more intense as we go south, owing to increased 
elevation. 

Mr. Coffin says of Pompey, "It is the coldest place reported in the 
State ; colder even than those in the extreme northern counties. But it is 
rather remarkable, that while this is the fact, the thermometer does not 
sink so low there in the winter, nor do the autumnal frosts occur so early 
as in the State generally." The escape from autumnal frosts is probably 
due to the fact that there is more wind blowing at Pompey Hill than in the 
valleys, and lower grounds of the county. 

The length of the summer season in the State, generally, reckoning from 
the first blooming of the apple trees, to the first killing frost, is 174 days. 
In Onondaga it is from 174 to 180 ; thus giving us three more summer 
days than the average of the State, while Long Island has twelve and a 
half more, and St. Lawrence twenty-two days less than the average of the 
State. 

Observations of the temperature have been taken at Fairmount, at a 
point 520 feet above the sea, for more than sixty years ; and during that 
time a standard instrument in the shade, protected from all reflection, has 
never been observed to mark more than 94*^ in the hottest weather, and 
this but once in many years ; and there have been but few days in the cold- 
est weather that the mercury was not, at some time in the day, above zero. 

February 5th and 6th, 1855, were the coldest days ever known here, and 
deserve a permanent record. The severe cold commenced 

On the 4th, at 10 o'clock, P. M., 10° below zero. 



do 


5th, at 


2 


do 


A. M. 


, 19° 


do 


do 


do 


6 


do 


. do 


28° 


do 


do 


do 


9 


do 


do 


22° 


do 


do 


do 


11 


do 


do 


20° 


do 


do 


do 


1 


do 


p. M. 


, 17° 


do 


do 


do 


2 


do 


do 


16° 


do 


do 


do 


3 


d-0 


do 


16° 


do 


do 


do 


5 


do 


do 


18« 


do 


do 


do 


9 


do 


do 


26° 


do 


do 


6th, at 


6 


do 


A. M. 


, 30° 


do 


do 


do 


8 


do 


do 


26° 


do 


do 


do 


10 


do 


do 


7° 


do 


do 


do 


11 


do 


do 


0° 


do 


do 


do 


12 


do 


M., 


2° 


above zero 



During this unprecedented weather the sky was nearly cloudless, and as 
there was no wind, the severity of the weather was not so apparent ; but 



81 

the 5th of February, 1855. will probably stand on the records of observers 
as the coldest day of the century. The average annual range of the ther- 
mometer, at Onondaga, is 96°, while for the State, generally, it is 104*. 

Thus our climate is less variable than most of the State where observa- 
tions have been taken. 

The average course of the winds in the county, is south 67 deg. 8 min. 
west ; while the average of the State is south 76 deg. 54 min. west ; giving 
9 deg. 46 min. more southing to our winds, and, of course,- by so much 
greater warmth than the State generally. 

The pastures are usually sufficiently started in the spring, to turn our 
cattle to grass, from the 15th to the 20th of May, and from the middle of 
November to the first of December, we usually begin to withdraw them 
from the fields to the yards, and winter feeding begins ; thus our farm stock 
is fed about one-half of the year, upon forage and grain that has been 
stored during the summer at great cost. 

The annual average of water that falls in rain and snows at Pompey 
Academy, is 29.46 inches ; at Onondaga, 31.40. Pompey is on the sum- 
mit of the highlands, and Onondaga Academy is at the base. The distance 
between the two points of observation, in a direct line, is ten miles very 
nearly, and the difference in elevation is 1,343 feet, equal to 134 feet to 
the mile. Hills are condensers of the vapor in the air, but their own 
summits do not receive the benefit of the greatest fall of water. Along 
the base of the range, the showers are the most abundant, as is seen by 
Onondaga valley receiving two inches more than Pompey. 



CHAPTER Y. 

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS OP THE SEVERAL TOWNS OF ONONDAGA CO. 

CICERO. 

Cicero is bounded on the north and east by Oneida lake and Chittenango 
creek, which divides it from Madison county ; on the south by the towns 
of Manlius and De Witt, lapping a little on the town of Salina ; and on 
the west by Clay. 

This town is in the northeast corner of the county ; its surface is level 
or rolling ; its soil a loam ; the north -side of the town inclining to clay, 
the northwest corner having sand in excess. 

There is a large swamp, on the south side of the middle of the town, 
extending from Cicero village to Chittenango creek, which contains about 
ten square miles, very little of it having been cultivated. 

. Water runs both east and west from this swamp, and its surface being 
twenty-five feet above Oneida lake, and about thirteen feet above Chitte- 
nango creek, where its outlet joins it, it might be drained at small cost, 
and rendered valuable for farming land. Several attempts have been made 
to accomplish this desirable object, but in consequence of the conflicting 



82 



views of owners, thus far, but little good has been done. A general and 
comprehensive plan is necessary, and must very soon be resorted to by 
the owners. There is another smaller swamp near the west end, and on 
the shore of the lake. 

Until recently, a large business has been done in Cicero, connected with 
the manufacture of salt barrels, and cutting and drawing wood to the salt 
works at Syracuse. This is nearly over, the timber being used up ; and 
the industry of the town is fast being turned to the improvement of its 
agriculture. It shows signs of progress and prosperity. Draining is 
required, not only of the swamps, but of most of what is called the dry 
soils. The surface is sufl&ciently high and rolling to render this practica- 
ble. The general surface is not more than four hundred feet above tide, 
and the protection that Oneida lake affords against frosts, makes its shore 
particularly desirable for the cultivation of the grape. 

An extensive vineyard has been planted on one of the islands near South 
Bay. 

The total number of acres in this town, 29,289. 



Improved acres, 14,376 

do to each 

inhabitant, 4 . 24 

Value of stock, $135,517 

Acres plowed in 1854, . . 

Acres pasture, 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown 



Unimproved, 



5,063| 

4,40U 
3,391 
261 



Winter wheat. 


do 


Oats, 


do 


Eye, 


do 


Barley, 


do 


Buckwheat, 


do 


Corn, 


do 


Potatoes, 


do 


Peas, 


do 


Beans, 


do 


Turnips, 


do 


Tobacco, 


do 


Flax, 


do 


Bushels of seed. 


. . . 



2,090f 
42 
85J 



1,( 



44U 

187i 

n 

H 

4 



Apples, bushels, 20,131 

Maple sugar, lbs., 467 

Honey, lbs., 4,148 

Neat cattle under one 

383 
122 
128 



Cash value of farms. 
Tools and implements 
Acres fallow, .... 
Acres, meadow, . . 
Bushels of grass seed 
Bushels harvested, 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 
Pounds harvested, . 
do of lint, . . . 

Wine, galls., 

Cider, barrels, . . . 
Molasses, galls., . . 
Beeswax, lbs.,. . . . 



year, 

Working oxen, 

Cattle killed for beef, . . 

Cheese, lbs., 28,035 



Oter one year,. 
Cows 

Butter, lbs., . . 
Milk, galls., .. 



14,913 

[,145,868 
$43,452 
199^ 
3,161^ 
204 
298-1 
1,519^ 
59,988 
400 
1,68U- 
3,492^ 
44,304 ■ 
24,842 
3,504 
380^ 
970 
9,000 
400 
136 
569 

213^ 

769 

1,324 

129,140 

510 



Horses, 901 

Swine over six montts,. 803 

Fleeces, ],610 

Poultry sold, (value,) . . $1,209 

Fulled cloth made, yds., 714^ 

Linen do do 120^ 
Value of produce of market gardens, , 



Swine under six months, 

Sheep, 

Wool, lbs., 

Eggs, value, 

Flannel, yards, 

Cotton and mixed, yds.. 



749 

2,253 
5,5441- 
$1,627 
1,342 

727^ 
$50 



Post offices at Cicero Corners and Brewerton. 



CLAY. 



Bounded on the north by Oneida river, which separates it from Oswego 
county, on the east by Cicero, on the south by Salina, and on the west by 
Seneca river, which separates it from Lysander. 

The general surface and soils of this town are quite like those of Cicero. 
Along Oneida river the land is low and in some places swampy. The 
southeast corner is sandy. The total number of acres in Clay, is 30,217. 
Improved acres, 19,535^ Unimproved. 10,681 1 



Improved acres to each 
inhabitant, ........ 

Cash value of stock, . . . 
Acres plowed in 1854, 
Acres pasture, do 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown 
Winter do do 

Oats, do 

Rye, do 

Barley, do 

Buckwheat, do 

Corn, do 

Potatoes, do 

Peas, do 

Beans, do 

Turnips, do 

Tobacco, do 

Flax, do 

Bushels of flax seed, . . 

Apples, bushels, 

Maple sugar, }bs., 

Honey, do 

Neat cattle under 1 year. 

Working oxen 

Cattle killed for beef, . . 

Cheese, lbs., 

Horses, 

Swine over six months, 
Fleeces, 



5.87 

$171,212 

7,393| 

5,546| 

4,671i 

96^ 

544| 

2,908| 

177 

505| 

395 

2,187i 

419 

128| 

m 

6| 
24| 

21 

24 

27,578 

665 

3,677 

512 

169 

378 

11,535 

1,177 

1,114 

3,447 



Cash value of farms, . . $1,458,713 
do tools and 

implements, 

Acres, fallow, 

do meadow, ...... 

Bushels of grass seed,. . 
Bushels harvested, .... 

do 

do 

do ■ 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Pounds harvested, 

do of lint, 

Wine, galls., 

Cider, barrels, 

Molasses, galls., 

Beeswax, lbs., 

Over one year, 

Cows, 

Butter, lbs., 

Milk, galls., 

Swine under six months. 

Sheep, 

Wool, lbs., 



43,887 

187 

4,645 

278i 

1,025 

2,4751 

76,995 

2,433 

9,794 

4,075 

55,937 

34,011 

2,314i 

768^ 

1,689 

27,765 

50 

47 

680 

40 

1791 

1,002 

1,363 

120,907 

840 

878 

4,292 

12,358 



84 



$1,212 

7391 

296 



Eggs sold, 

Flannel, yds., 

Cotton and mixed, yds., 
Value of products, .... 



^2,239 
1,195 

1,087 



Poultry sold, value,. . . . 
Fulled cloth made, yds., 
Linen do do 

Market gardens, acres 

cultivated, 15-| 

The post offices in Clay are at Belgium, Euclid, Centerville, and Three 
River Point. 

LTSANDER. 

Bounded on the north bv the county line of Oswego ; on the east by 
Seneca river ; on the south by Seneca river which separates it from Geddes, 
Van Buren and Elbridge ; and en the west by Cross lake, and the line of 
the county of Cayuga. 

The soil of this town is generally of excellent quality, the eastern part, 
particularly that which lies in the bow of the river, is very superior. In 
the center, north of Baldwinsville, there are some swamps not yet brought 
into cultivation, but destined to be valuable when cleared and drained. 
West of Baldwinsville there is a considerable tract of sandy loam. The 
western portion of the town is excellent wheat laad, Lysander is not as 
level as Cicero and Clay, but no part of it is so hilly as to be of any real 
disadvantage. These three towns lying along the north line of the county 
are destined to be of great value ; they are now comparatively new, but the 
farmers are improving rapidly, and the time is not far distant, when the 
intrinsic value of their soils will be better understood and appreciated. 
This was once the great lumber district, and the pine stumps which have 
been in the way of perfect cultivation, are now placed around the fields 
they once encumbered, making good and lasting fences. The total number 
of acres in Lysander is 37,o98-|. 



Improved acres, 

Improved acres to each 

inhabitant, 

Cash value of stock,. . . 
Acres plowed in 1854, . 
Acres pasture do 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown 



Winter do 

Oats 

Rye, 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Corn, 

Potatoes, 

Peas, 

Beans, 

Turnips, 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



27,069i 

5.35 

$243,259 

8,924 

9,124-1- 

5,753-1 

106 

2,016| 

3,165| 

104| 

1,197| 

423| 

3,076 

421| 

88-. 

173^ 

16i 



Unimproved, 10,329 

Cash value of farms, . . . $1,777,046 
do • tools and 

implements, 52,678 

Acres, fallow, 642 

do meadow, 4,801-| 

Bushels of grass seed, . 105|^ 

Bushels harvested, .... 966 

do 13,534 

do 91,976-1 

do .... 1,235§ 

do .... 23,125-1- 

do .... 4,905 

do 91,623 

do .... 38,268 

do .... 1,455 

do 2,995 

do .... 2,676 



85 



Tobacco, do 

Apples (bushels), 

Maple sugar, lbs., 

Wine, galls., 

Honey, lbs.,. 

Neat cattle under one 

year, 

Working oxen, 

Cattle killed for beef, . . 

Cheese, lbs., , ., . . 

Horses, 

Swine over six months, . 

Fleeces, 

Value of poultry sold, . 
Yards of fulled cloth 

made, 

Linen, yards made, .... 
Market gardens, acres 

cultivated, 



48,181 

905 

196 

6,120 

795 

278 

476 

40,738 

1,430 

1,702 

5,082 

$2,431 



»UX-g 

209 



Pounds harvested, , 
Cider, barrels, . . . , 
Molasses, gallons,, 



Wax, lbs.. 



Over one year, 

Cows, 

Butter, lbs., 

Milk sold, gallons 

Swine under six months, 

Sheep, 

Wool,.... 

Value of eggs sold, .... 

Flannel made, yds,. . . . 
Cotton and mixed, .... 



28,544 

1,373| 

37 



336^ 



1,677 
1,949 

207,813 

1,598 

1,610 

7,494 

19,104 

$3,690 

1,201 
459 



2 Value of products, . . . 



Post offices in Lysander are at Baldwinsville, Lysander, Little Uticii, 
Plainville, Polkville and Lamson's. 

ELBRIDGE. 

Bounded on the north by Cross lake, and the towns of Lysander and 
Van Buren ; on the east by Camillus ; south by Skaneateles and Cayuga 
county, and west by Cayuga. 

The north part of the town is low, and generally level ; the south part 
reaches up to the Helderberg range of rocks. The Erie" canal passes 
through it, from east to west, and Skaneateles creek, from north to south. 
The soil, which is good, is made up, principally, from northern drift, 
and the shales of the Salt, group. The total number of acres in this town 
is 21,420^. 



Improved acres, 16,792| 

do to each in- 
habitant, 3.68 

Cash value of. stock, . . . $164,722 
Acres plowed in 1 854 , . . 6 , 3 74^ 

pasture do 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown. 



Winter do 

Oats, 

Bye, 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Corn, 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



4,375 
3,209 

10 
1,848-^ 
1,700 

34-1- 

l,148i- 

143| 

1,991| 



Unimproved, 

Cash value of farms, 
do tools- and 

plements, 

Acres fallow, 

meadow, . . . 
Bushels grass seed. 
Bushels harvested, 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do ' 



in 



4,638 
$1,302,058 

36,636 

843 

2,586 

195i 

62 

11,254 

49,318 

520 

24,268 

1,569 

62,324 



8G 



Potatoes, acres sown, 
Peas, do 

Beans, do 

Turnips, do 

Tobacco, do 

Apples, bushels, 

Maple sugar, lbs., 

Honey, lbs., 

Neat cattle, under 1 y'r, 

Working oxen, 

Cattle killed for beef, . . 

Cheese, lbs., 

Horses, . 

Swine, under 6 months. 

Sheep, 

Wool, lbs., 

Poultry sold, value, . . . 
Fulled cloth made, yds., 
Linen do 
Market garden, acres cul- 
tivated, 

Post offices — Elbridge, 



219t 

12^ 
22| 

11 

11 

26,816 

14 

4,647 

428 

141 

297 

17,730 

879 

765 

5,325 

13,455 

$1,166 

69 

64 



Bushels harvested, 

do 

do 

do 

do 
Cider, barrels,. . . . 
Molasses, gallons, . 
Wax, pounds, . . . . 

Over 1 year, 

Cows, 

Butter, lbs., 

Milk sold, gallons. 

Mules, 

Over six months, . . 

Fleeces, 

Eggs sold, value, . . 

Flannel, yds., 

Cotton and mixed, . 
Value of products. 



17,670 

197 

386| 

2,392 

12,000 

760 

2 

199 

990 

1,215 

120,304 

850 

4 

1,328 

3,821 

$1,700 

221 

20 



Jordan, Jack's Reefs, and Hart Lot. 



VAN BUREM, 



Bounded on the north by Lysander, from which it is separated by the 
Seneca river ; on the east by Lysander and Greddes ; on the south by Camil- 
lus and Elbridge, and on the west by Elbridge and Lysander. 

The surface is level or rolling ; some extensive swamps lie along the Erie 
canal, near the south line. The soil is generally good ; in some places 
coarse" sand, or fine gravel and cobble stones, are in excess. Where the 
land is not swampy, it consists principally of drift. Total number of acres 
in Van Buren is 21,405. 



Improved acres, 17,301 

do to each in- 
habitant , . . . 5.60 

Cash value of stock, . . . $149,537 
Acres plowed in 1854,. . 5,216-| 

pasture do 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat,acres sown. 



Winter do 

Oats, 

Rye, 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Corn, 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



2,830f 

55 
1,642 
2,414 

3 

832| 

151i 

2,231i 



Unimproved, 

Cash value of farms, 
do tools and 

plements, 

Acres fallow, 

meadow, .... 
Bushels of grass seed 
Bushels harvested, 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

d« 



4.104 

[,257,541 

43,547 
612 
2,496^ 
66 
695^ 
10,234 
74,167 
12 
17,836 
1,650^ 
64,125 



87 



Potatoes, acres sown, 
Peas, do 

Beans, do 

Turnips, do 

Hops, do 

Tobacco, do 

Apples, bushels, 

Wine, gallons, 

Honey, pounds, 

Neat cattle, under 1 y'r, 

Working oxen, 

Cattle killed for beef, . . 
Cheese, pounds, ....... 

Swine, under 6 months, 

Sheep, 

Wool, pounds, 

Value of poultry sold, . . 
Fulled cloth made, yds.. 
Post offices — Canal, Van 



15 

47| 

^ 

8 

16^ 

39,141 

14 

3,230 

430 

. 98 

262 

21,640 

1,040 

3,152 

9,597 



Bushels harvested, 22,947 

do 298 

do .... 750-1 

do 695 

do 

Pounds harvested, 23,800 

Cider, barrels, 912 

Wax, pounds, 165^ 

Over 1 year, 969 

Cows, 1,262 

Butter, pounds, 133,425 

Horses, 902 

Over 6 months 996 

Fleeces, 2,594 

Value of eggs sold, .... $2,571 

Flannel, yards, • i 66 



17 



Buren Center, and Van Buren. 



CAMILLUS. 



Bounded north by Van Buren, east by Geddes, south by Onondaga and 
Marcellus, and west by Elbridge. Surface, rolling, having many drift 
hills in the north part, and the south part reaching up to the Helderberg 
range. Nine mile creek runs through from near the southwest corner, in 
a northeasterly direction, passing out of the town on its east side. This 
creek runs through a deep valley in the south part of the town, and has 
steep slopes on both its sides. Along the canal are some swamps, but 
generally the land is dry; most of the soil is made of the gypseous shales. 
The total number of acres in Camillus, is 19,985|. 



Improved acres, 

do to each 



16,411 



inhabitant, . 




5.98 


Cash value of stock, . . . 


$142,934 


Acres plowed 


in 1854, 


6,lO0i 


do pasture 


do 


4,394^ 


Tons of hay, . 




2,566 


Spring wheat, acres sown 


31| 


Winter do 


do 


2,0851 


Oats, 


do 


1,980^ 


Barley, 


do 


l,412i 


Buckwheat, 


do 


82| 


Corn, 


do 


1,883^ 


Potatoes, 


do 


227i 


Peas, 


do 


16i 


Beans, 


do 


14| 



Unimproved, 

Cash value of farms, 

do tools and 

implements, .... 

Acres, fallow, .... 

do meadow, . . 

Bushels grass seed. 

Bushels harvested, 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 



3,574| 

$1,165,840 

35,583 

556i 

2,064| 

51 

336 

10,006| 

59,731 

32,969 

588^ 

58,060 

19,857 

145 

233 



88 



Turnips, acres sown, 
Hops, do 

Tobacco, do 

Apples, bushels, ...... 

Wine, galls., 

Beeswax, lbs., 

Neat cattle under 1 year, 

Working oxen, 

Cattle killed for beef, . . 
Cheese, lbs., ......... 

Mules, ... 

Swine over six months. 

Fleeces, 

Value poultry sold,. . . . 

Filed cloth made, yds.. 

Cotton and mixed, yds.. 

Post offices, Camillus, 



3 

04 

30,343 

576 

119 

435 

94 

171 

12,470 

4 

848 

5,137 

.$1,128 

3 

40 

Bellisle, Fairmount 



Bushels harvested. 
Pounds, ......... 

do 

Cider, bbls., 

Honey, lbs., 



Neat cattle over 1 year, 

Cows, 

Butter, lbs., 

Horses, 

Swine, under 6 months, 

Sheep, 

Wool, lbs 

Value eggs sold, 

Flannel, yds., 



GEDDES. 

Bounded on the north by the town of Salina, from which it is 
by Onondaga lake ; on the east by the City of Syracuse ; on the 
Onondaga ; on the west by Camillus and Van Buren. 

The surface of this town is rolling, and made up of the small 
and gypseous shales. There is some low land about the head of 
but most of the soil is dry and fertile. 

The total number of acres in the town of Geddes, is 6,258| 



937 

2,000 
9,000 
645-1 
1,194 

636 

1,047 

110,209 

879 

1,085 

5,649 

20,230 

$1,457 

60 



separated 
south by 

drift hills 
the lake, 



Improved acres, 

do to each 

inhabitant, 

Cash value of stock, . . . 
Acres plowed in 1854, . 

do pasture do 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown 



Winter do 

Oats, 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Corn, 

Potatoes, 

Peas, 

Beans, 

Turnips, 

Tobacco, 

Apples, bushels. 

Wine, galls., .. . 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



4,786 

2.31 

$90,084 
1,780^ 
1,133| 



377 

770| 

183-1 

26 1 

507^ 

124^ 

27 

2 

6| 

91 

4,067 

114 



Unimproved, 

Cash value of farms 

do tools 

implements, .... 

Acres, fallow, . . . . 

do meadow, . . 

Grass seed, bushels. 

Bushels harvested, 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 
Pounds harvested. 
Cider, barrels,. . . . 
Honey, lbs., 



and 



$816,446 



15,464 

288^ 

899 



1,358 

21,15H- 

4,256 

92| 

12,164 

10,834^ 

364 

55| 

1,260 

7,563 

57^- 

2,100 



89 



Beeswax, 

Cattle over one year, . , 

Cows, 

Butter, lbs., 

Milk sold, galls 

Swine under 6 months,. 

Sheep, 

"Wool, lbs., 

Value of eggs sold, . . . 
Post office, Geddes. 



63 Neat cattle under 1 year, 

129 Working oxen, 

904 Cattle killed for beef, . . 

40,945 Cheese, lbs., 

2,515 Horses, 

240 Swine over six months, 

863 Fleeces, 

2,191 Value of poultry sold, . 

$564 Flannel made, yds., . . . 

SALINA. 



49 
23 

24 

6,150 

629 

876 

603 

$452 

41 



Bounded on the north by Clay; on the east by De Witt ; south by the 
city of Syracuse and Onondaga lake ; west by lake and Seneca river. 
Surface level, soil dry, except some small swamps. Sand is in excess at 
the southeast corner of the town. Drift and the red shales of the salt 
group make up and constitute a fruitful soil for most of the whole surface. 
The total number of acres in Salina is 8,778|, 



Improved acres, 

do to each 

inhabitant, 

Cash value of stock, . . . 
Acres plowed in 1854, . 

do pasture do 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown 



Winter do 

Oats, 

Rye, 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Corn, 

Potatoes, 

Peas, 

Beans, 

Turnips, 

Tobacco, 

Flax, 

Flax seed 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
bushels,. . . . 



Cider, barrels, 

Molasses, gallons, ..... 

Honey, lbs., 

Neat cattle under one 

year, 

Working oxen, 

Cattle killed for beef, . . 



6,559| 

2.54 
$51,901 
2,380|- 
1,755 
1,559 
51 
196| 
729i 
26 
118| 
621 
801| 
240-1 
32i 
14t 

2i 

72 

1 

10 

107 

50 

854 

80 

54 

149 



Unimproved, 2,219 

Cash value of farms, . . $731,371 
do tools and 

implements, 12,438 

Acres fallow, 158^ 

do meadow, 1,413 

G-rass seed, bushels, ... 4^ 

Bushels harvested, .... 519 

d6 .... 818 

do .... 19,928 

do 244 

do . 2,833 

do .... 423 

do .... 19,919 

do .... 15,550 

do 439 

do ... 227 

do 636 

Pounds harvested, 90,883 

do of lint, 2,000 

Apples, bushels, 4,021 

Maple sugar, lbs., 400 

Wine, gallons, 160 

Beeswax, 31 



Over one year, 

Cows, 

Butter, lbs.,. .. 



260 

427 

44,732 



90 



Cheese, ibs., 

Horses, 

Swine over six months, 
Fleeces, 

Value of poultry sold, . 
Fulled cloth made, yds., 
Linen do 

Market gardens, acres 

cultivated, 

Post office, Liverpool. 



400 Milk, gallons sold, .... 56,740 

333 Swine under six months, 354 

320 Sheep, 1,557 

1,246 Wool, lbs., 4,010^ 

Value of eggs sold,. . . . 1402 
18 

12 Flannel, yds, 64 

19^ Value of products, .... $1,733 



DE "WITT. 

Bounded on the north by Cicero ; east by Manlius ; south by Pompey 
and La Fayette ; west by Onondaga, the city of Syracuse and Salina. 

The north half of this town is level or rolling, the south half is hilly, 
and cut up by valleys having steep sides. Considerable areas are rocky, 
and, therefore, difficult of cultivation. Most of the soil is made of drift, 
the shales of the salt group, and disintegrated rocks of the Helderberg 



range, and therefore very fruitful. 
21,937^. 

Improved acres, 15,643^ 

do to each 



Total number of acres in De Witt is 



inhabitant, 

Cash value of stock,. . . 
Acres plowed in 1854, , 

do pasture do 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown 
Winter do do 

Oats, do 

Rye, do 

Barley, do 

Buckwheat, do 

Corn, do 

Potatoes, do 

Peas, do 

Beans, do 

Turnips, do 

Tobacco, do 

Apples, bushels, 

Maple sugar, lbs, 

Honey, lbs., 

Neat cattle under one 

year, ,.. 

Working oxen,. 

Cattle killed for beef, . . 



5.24 

$146,471 

5,189| 

4,700 

3,344 

88 

1,188 



298^ 
145-1- 
1,897 
227| 
205| 

28| 
12,564 
6 

2,675 

290 
190 

82 



Unimproved, 

Cash value of farms, 
do tools 

implements, .... 

Acres fallow, 

do meadow, . . . 
Bushels grass seed, 
do harvested, 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 
Pounds harvested. 
Cider, barrels,. . . . 



and 



Wa2 



Over one year. 
Cows, 

Butter, lbs., . 



6,294 

$1,659,487 



$46,404 

463 

3,180| 

66 

791.J 

3,542 

49,230 

5 

5,740 

1,041 

44,580 

14,321 

3,065 

90 

72 

32,525 

566 



108-^ 



688 

1,170 

97,235 



91 

Cheese, lbs., 13,360 Milk sold, gallons, 67,856 

881 Swine under six months, 728 

804 Sheep, 3,686 

2,748 Wool, lbs., 10,291 

$991 Value of eggs sold, . . . $2,048 

36 Cotton and mixed, yds., 104 



Horses, 

Swine over six months, . 

Fleeces, 

Value of poultry sold, . 

Flannel made, yds., . . . 

Market gardens, acres 

cultivated, 



5^ Value of products, .... 



Post offices, Jamesville. De Witt, Collamer. 

MANLIUS. 

Bounded north by Clay and Madison county, from which it is divided 
by the Chittenango creek ; east by Madison county ; south by Pompey, 
and west by De Witt. 

The topography and soils of this town are similar to those of De Witt ; 
Limestone and Butternut creeks run through, and unite with each other in 
the north part of the town, and then flow into the Chittenango. 

The total number of acres in Manlius is 29,186g. 

Improved acres, 21,640]^ Unimproved, 7,546^ 

do to each Cash value of farms, . .$1,513,431 

inhabitant, 3.47 do of tools and 



Cash value of stock. . . . 
Acres plowed in 1854, . . 
Acres pasture in 1854, . 

Tons of hay,. 

Spring wheat, acres sown 
Winter wheat, do 
Oats, do 

Rye, do 

Barley, do 

Buckwheat, do 

Corn, do 

Potatoes, do 

Peas, do 

Beans, do 

Turnips, do 

Tobacco, do 

Flax, do 

Flax seed, bushels, .... 

Cider, bbls., 

Honey, lbs., 

Neat cattle under 1 year 
Working oxen,. ....... 

Cattle killed for beef, . . 

Cheese, lbs.,. . . . ,. 

Horses, 



$173,079 
7,995| 
5,775 
3,423| 
84^ 
1,946.^- 
3,161| 

524| 
1601 

2,572§ 

272| 

184^ 

28f 

1| 

76^ 

18-1- 

734-1- 

6,407 

■ 488 

119 

126 

9,890 

1,109 



implements, 
Acres fallow . 
Acres meadow 
Bushels, grass seed 
Bushels harvested, 

do 

do 

do 

do ' 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 
Pounds harvested 
Pounds of lint,. 
Apples, bushels. 
Wine, galls.,.. . 
Beeswax, lbs.,. . 
Over one year. . 

Cows, 

Butter, lbs., . . . 
Milk sold, galls.. 
Swine under six months 



38,937 

1,140 

3,544| 

557| 

824 

5,470^ 

72,923 

3 

10,051 

1,203| 

61,132 

17,975 

2,320 

233 

1104- 

75,004 

2,750 

25,176 

2 

267 

941 

1,365 

130,077 

11,395 

799 



92 



145 

96 



Sheep, 

Wool, lbs., 

Value of eggs sold,. . . . 

Flannel, yards, 

Cotton and mixed, yds., 
Value of products,. . . . 



4,160 
12,970J 

$2,004 

255 

88 

$50 



Swine over six months,. 1,242 

Fleeces, 3,790 

Value of poultry sold, . . 

Fulled cloth, yards,. . . . 

Linen do .... 

Market garden, acres cul- 
tivated, ^ 

Post offices — Manlius, Fayetteville, Manlius Centre, Manlius Station, 

Kirkville, North Manlius. 

POMPET. 

Bounded on the north by De Witt and Manlius ; on the east by Madison 
county ; on the south by Fabius ; on the west by La Fayette. 

This town is principally on the Marcellus and Hamilton Shales, the 
northeast corner reaching down to the Helderberg range. 

Pompey Hill is 1,743 feet above tide, and from this point the surface 
slopes in every direction, the waters flowing from it to the north into the 
St. Lawrence, and to the south into Chesapeake Bay. Although there is 
a hill in Spajfford, higher than any land in Pompey, the general surface is 
above any other town in the county. The soil, except in the valleys, is 
made by the disintegration of the underlying rocks, and, except the north 
part, it is best adapted to grazing. 

The total number of acres is 40,706^. 
Improved acres, 32,420^ Unimproved, , 



Improved acres to each 

inhabitant, 8.60 

Value of stock $235,582 

Acres plowed in 1854, . . 12,943^ 

Acres, pasture, 10,320 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown 
Winter wheat, do 
Oats, do 

Rye, do 

Barley, do 

Buckwheat, do 

Corn, do 

Potatoes, do 

Peas, do 

Beans, do 

Turnips, do 

Flax, do 



Bushels of flax seed, . , ^ 

Hops, acres sown, 

Tobacco, do 

Apples, bush, produced, 



5,238 
1,325 

588| 

4,200 

30 

2,595^ 

227| 

2,141| 

356| 

655 1 

12| 

2 

10 

182-1 

If 
18^ 
39,417 



Cash value of farms. 
Tools and implements 
In fallow, . ..... 

In meadow, 

Bushels of grass seed 
Bushels harvested,. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 
Pounds of lint, .... 



Pounds harvested, . 

do 
Cider, bbls., 



8,286 

$1,856,475 

$75,358 

313 

5,889-^ 

804 

16,404 

' 2,676 

84,332 

300 

45,493 

2,033 

65,070 

25,457 

9,760 

196 

220 

3,500 

2,500 
19,793 

800 



93 



Market gardens, acres 
cultivated, 

Maple sugar, lbs., 

Wine, galls., 

Wax, lbs., 

Cattle, over 1 year old, . 

Cows, 

Butter, lbs., 

Horses, 

Swine over six months, . 

Fleeces 

Value of poultry sold, . . 

Fulled cloth made, yds., 

Linen do do 

Post offices — Pompey, 



1^- Value of products,... . $230 

3,321 Maple molasses, galls.,. 214 

34 Honey, lbs., 6,945 

324 Neat cattle under 1 yr old 670 

1,207 Working oxen, 164 

1,894 Killed for beef, 233 

194,815 Cheese, lbs., 43,680 

1,427 Swine under six months, 976 

1,053 Sheep, 9,338 

10,278 Wool, lbs., 38,657 

$1,651 Eggs, sold, $3,486 

14 Flannel, yards 347 

36 Cotton and mixed, .... 67 

Delphi, Watervale, Oran, and Pompey Centre. 



LA FAYETTE. 

Bounded on the north byDe Witt and Onondaga; on the east by Pom- 
pey ; on the south by Fabius and Tulley; on the west by Otisco and Onon- 
daga. 

This town is mostly on high land. The west side is traversed by the 
valley of the Onondaga creek, and the Butternut creek valley reaches the 
whole length of the town on the east side. Except the drift in these val- 
leys, the soil is principally made from the shales of the Marcellus and 
Hamilton groups. It is well adapted to grazing. Total number of acres 
in La Fayette is 23,986 
Improved acres, .... 

do to each in 

habitant, . . , „ 
Cash value of stock,. , 
Acres plowed in 1854 

pasture do 
Tons of hay, ....... 

Spring wheat, acres sown, 



Winter do 

Oats, 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Corn, 

Potatoes, 

Peas, 

Beans, 

Turnips, 

Hops, 

Tobacco, 

Apples, bushels, 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



18,004 

7.69 

$123,390 

7,084| 

5,171 

2,528^ 

434^ 

869| 

3,008 

1,456| 

97| 

1,313^ 

190i 

96| 

R 
1 

36,368 



Unimproved, 

Cash value of farms, 
do tools and 

plcments, 

Acres fallow, ..... 
meadow, . . . 
Bushels grass seed, 
Bushels harvested, 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 
Pounds harvested,. 

do 
Cider, barrels,. . . 



5,982 
$1,084,545 

$38,357 
252| 
2,761| 
365-^ 
4,642 
4,862 
58,440 
27,868 
985 
40,520 
15,291 
1,373 
140 
108 
1,400 
1,200 
443^ 



94 



Maple sugar, pounds, . . 

Honey, pounds, 

Neat cattle, under 1 y'r, 

Working oxen, 

Cattle killed for beef, . . 

Cheese, pounds, 

Swine, under 6 months, . 

Sheep, 

Wool, pounds, 

Value of eggs sold, .... 

Flannel, yards, 

Cotton and mixed, 

Post offices — La Fayette, 



8,898 Molasses, gallons, 

10,321 Beeswax, pounds, . . . . 

301 Over 1 year, 

79 Cows, 

97 Butter, pounds, 

6,915 Horses, 

621 Over 6 months, 

3,359 Fleeces, 

14,470^ Value of poultry sold,. 

$2,753 Fulled cloth, yards, . . 

341 Linen do 

85 
Cardiff, Linn. 

ONONDAGA. 



557 

373 

614 

1,088 

114,382 

811 

761 

3,762 

11,009 

101 

79 



Bounded north by Camillus, Gleddes and the City of Syracuse ; east by 
De Witt and La Fayette ; south by La Fayette and Otisco ; west by Mar- 
cellus and Camillus. 

The surface of this town is uneven, having the valley of Onondaga creek 
running from south to north through its whole width, and a deep valley from 
the Onondaga to the Nine Mile creek. In this valley the whole of the 
Marcellus shales are removed, and the upper measures of the limestone of 
the Helderberg range appear. On the north side and near the west corner, 
the lime rocks are exposed in steep and perpendicular walls. The valley 
of the Onondaga creek is filled with drift, and sheltered from the west 
winds : it is among the most valuable farming districts in the State. 
Although there are many places where the lime stone outcrop, yet they 
occupy but small areas, and nearly all of the town is susceptible of culti- 
vation. Some of the high lands require draining to make them valuable. 

Total number of acres in Onondaga, is 40,848^. 



Improved acres, 

do to each 

inhabitant, 

Cash value of stock, . . . 
Acres plowed in 1854, . . 

do pasture do . . 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown 



Winter wheat, 

Oats, 

Eye, 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Corn, 

Potatoes, 

Peas, 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



33,001| 

6.10 

$272,247 

12,585-^ 

8,500| 

5,677-1- 

720 

3,060| 

4,482| 

71- 

2,128 

211A 

3,230 

520| 

281# 



Unimproved, . , 7,846 1 

Cash value of farms, . . $2,817,658 
do tools and 
implements, $77,169 



Acres, fallow, 

do meadow, . . . 
Bushels grass seed,. 
Bushels harvested, . 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 



919 

5,439 

114 

9,421-1 

13,181| 

111,077 

109 

38,443 

2,125-1 

93,713 

40,518 

4,226 



95 



Beans, acres sown. 

Turnips, do 

Tobacco,. , do 

Apples, bushels 

Maple sugar, lbs., 

Wine, galls., 

Beeswax, lbs., 

Cattle over 1 year, .... 

'Cows, 

Butter, lbs., 

Milk sold, galls., 

Swine under six months, 

Sheep, 

Wool, 

Value of eggs sold,. . . . 

Flannel, yds., 

Market gardens, acres 

cultivated, 

Post offices — Onondaga 
Onondaga Castle, Howlet 



20 

91 
21 

73,302 

2,180 

117 

446 

1,228 

2,084 

223,343 

173,830 

1,559 

11,660 

36,639| 

$7,509 

930-1- 



180-1 



Bushels harvested, .... 

do 
Pounds harvested, . ... 
Cider, barrels,. ........ 

Molasses, galls, 

Honey, lbs., 

Neat cattle under 1 year, 

Working oxen, 

Cattle killed for beef, . . 

Cheese, lbs., 

Horses, 

Swine, over 6 months, . . 

Fleeces, 

Value of poultry sold, . . 

Fulled cloth, yds., 

Cotton and mixed, .... 
Value of products, .... 



379-1- 

1,057 

22,550 

3,0461- 

83 

9,540 

615 

208 

211 

23,139 

1,621 

1,718 

9,721 



237 

116 

$11,591 



, Onondaga Valley, South Onondaga, Navarino, 
Hill and West Onondaga. 



MARCELLUS. 



Bounded north by Camillus, east by Onondaga, south by Otisco and 
Spafford, and west by Skaneateles. 

Nine-mile creek runs from south to north through this town, dividing its 
surface into unequal parts — the largest part of the town being on the east 
side of the creek. The surface is uneven and hilly, but well adapted to 
grazing. The soil is mostly made from the Marcellus Shales. 

The total number of acres in Marcellus is 18,877i. 

Improved acres, 15,558| Unimproved, 

Improved acres to each 



inhabitant. 




6.10 


Cash value of 


stock, . . . 


$132,534 


Acres plowed 


in 1854.. 


5,739| 


Acres pasture in 1854. . 


4,692 


Tons of hay, . 
Spring wheat, < 




2,756-1- 

387i 


icres sown 


Winter wheat, 


do 


766-^ 


Oats, 


do 


1,465-1- 


Eye, 


do 


1 


Barley, 


do 


1,437-1- 


Buckwheat, 


do 


84| 


Corn, 


do 


1,4091- 


Potatoes, 


do 


207-^ 


Peas, 


do 


37 


Beans, 


do 


18-^ 



Cash value of farms. 
Cash value of tools 
implements, .... 

Acres fallow, 

Acres meadow,. . . , 
Bushels grass seed 
Bushels harvested, 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 



and 



$950,092 

$31,673 
196 
2,695-1 

117 

5,065 

4,893-1- 

31,461 

14 

23,767 

1,1721- 

40,668 

18,220 

548 

452 



96 



Turnips, acres sown,. . . 18| 

Tobacco, do ... 113 

Apples, bushels, 35,395 

Maple sugar, lbs., 225 

Honey, lbs., 1,458 

Neat cattle under 1 year 340 

Working oxen, 92 

Cattle killed for beef, . . 112 

Cheese, lbs., 13,073 

Swine under 6 months,. 596 

Sheep, , 7,079 

Wool, 24,258 

Value of eggs sold, ... . $1,650 

Elannel, yards, 79 

Cotton and mixed, yards, 46 

Post ofl&ces — Marcellus, Marcellus 



Bushels harvested, .... 3,273 

Pounds harvested, 145,310 

Cider, bbls,, 756 

Molasses, galls., 17 

Beeswax, lbs., 39-^- 

Over one year, 685 

Cows, 990 

Butter, lbs., 95,150 

Horses, 780 

Over six months, 618 

Fleeces 6,051 

Value of poultry sold, . $1,273 

Fulled cloth made, yds., 46 

Linen do do 45 

Falls, Marietta, and Thorn Hill. 



SKANEATELES. 

Bounded north by Elbridge, east by Marcellus and Skaneateles lake, and 
south and west by Cayuga county. 

The Helderberg range runs along the north line of this town. The sur- 
face of the north part is rolling — of the middle and southern parts more 
hilly — but the slopes are gentle. The soil is generally good, and in a high 
state of cultivation. Underdraining was resorted to many years ago, and 
with marked advantage. The south part of the town is divided nearly 
midway by the lake. The dry soils approach quite to the shore. 

The total number of acres in the town of Skaneateles is 24,914-i, 



Improved acres, 

Improv-ed acres to each 

inhabitant, 

Cash value of stock, . . . 

Acres plowed in 1854. . 
Acres pasture in 1854. . 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown 



Winter wheat, 

Oats, 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Corn, 

Potatoes, 

Peas, 

Beans, 

Turnips, 

Tobacco, 

Flax, 



do 
do 
do 
d0 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



20,9351- 



527 
$154,320 

7,666 

6,309-1- 

3,756'' 

466 

7591- 
l,611i 
2,169-1 

276| 
1,892 

161 
66| 
52| 

5t 

44| 

71 
'2 



Unimproved, 



Cash value of farms. 
Cash value of tools and 
implements,. . . . 

Acres fallow, 

Acres meadow. . . . 
Bushels grass seed, 
Bushels harvested, 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Pounds 

Pounds of lint, , . . 



3,979 

$2,303,672 

$53,967 
149i 
4,196^ 
341 1 
5,735 
4,264-1- 
36,056 
33,806 
3,137 
50,265 
13,076 
699 
785 
1,103 
48,550 
1,500 



97 



Flax seed, bushels, .... 67 

Cider, bbls., 674 

Molasses, galls., 41 

Honey, lbs., 4,787 

Neat cattle under lyear 483 

Working oxen, 146 

Cattle killed for beef,... 197 

Cheese, lbs., 23,286 

Horses, 886 

Swine over six months, . 662 

Fleeces, 8,602 

Value of poultry sold. . $2,614 

Fulled cloth made, yds., 51 

Linen do do 92 



Apples, bushels, 

Maple sugar, lbs., 

Wine, galls., 

Wax, lbs., 

Over one year, 

Cows, 

Butter, lbs., 

Milk sold, galls., 

Swine under six months. 

Sheep, 

Wool, lbs., 

Value of eggs sold,. . . . 
Flannel, yards, ..,,,.. 



45,658 

2,865 

10 

123 

899 

1,081 

90,223 

3,000 

729 

8,937 

32,373 

$2,982 

192 



Post offices — Skaneateles, Mottville, Mandana. 



SPAFFORD. 

North by Skaneateles and Marccllus ; east by Otisco and Tully ; south 
by Cortland county ; and west by Cayuga county. 

This town is on the ridge of land between the Skaneateles and Otisco 
valleys. The north end of the town is rolling and quite like the surface 
of the south part of Skaneateles. South of the village of Borodino the 
land rises rapidly, and near the south side of the town it is 1982-|- feet 
above tide, and 1122-| feet above Skaneateles lake. This point, Ripley 
Hill, is not more than two miles from the lake, and not much more than 
that distance from Nine Mile creek valley. These abrupt hills are cut in 
many places by the streams that run from them, into deep ravines. The 
Genesee slates, and the lower measures of the Ithaca group make the soils 
of the south, while the Hamilton slates make those of the north part of the 
town. The total number of acres in SpaflFord is 20,073. 

Improved acres, 15,643| Unimproved, 4,429| 

do to each Cash value of farms, . . $726,652 

inhabitant, 8.61 do tools and 



Cash value of stock, . . . 

Acres plowed in 1854, . 

do pasture do 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown 



Winter do 

Oats, 

Rye, 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Corn, 

Potatoes, 

Peas, 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



$115,088 
6,743 
5,3201- 
2,159| 
1,419 

253 
1,173^ 

4 
l,917i 

170i 
1,044 

133 



implements, . . , 

Acres fallow, . . . 

do meadow, . 

'Bushels grass seeds 

do harvested 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 



$28,216 
68 
2,661^ 
701- 
16,862 

l,312i 
21,143 
50 
28,951 
1,5951- 
30,305 
12,800 
951-1 



98 



Beans, acres sown, 

Turnips, do 

Flax, do 

Flax seed, bustels,. . . . 

Cider, barrels, 

Molasses, gallons, 

Wax, lbs., 

Neat cattle over 1 year, 

Cows, 

Butter, lbs., 

Horses, 

Swine over six months. 

Fleeces, 

Value of poultry sold, . 
Fulled cloth made, yds.. 
Linen do 

Post offices, Borodino, 



18^ Bushels harvested, .... 

1 do .... 

271| Pounds harvested, 

2,193 Apples, bushels, 

572-1 Maple sugar, lbs., 

73 Honey, lbs., 

388| Neat cattle under 1 year, 

754 Working oxen, 

906 Cattle killed for beef, . . 

99,575 Cheese, lbs., 

703 Swine under six months, 

499 Sheep, 

5,552 Wool, lbs., 

$1,376 Value of eggs sold, 

155 Flannel, yds., 

76 Cotton and mixed, yds., 
Spafford and SpafFord Hollow. 

OTISCO. 



568| 

356 

42,500 

41,900 

4,112 

5,442 

364 

96 

80 

8,320 

520 

4,430 

21,530 

$2,035 

245 

234 



' Bounded north by Marcellus and Onondaga; east by La Fayette and 
Tully ; south by Tully and Spaiford ; west by SpaflFord. 

This town is mostly on the Tully limestone, and its soil is largely influ- 
enced by it. The valley of the Otisco lake is on the west side, giving 
steep slopes from the high table land that makes up most of the town. The 
total number of acres is Otisco is 1?,606^. 

Unimproved, 3,803 

Cash value of farms, . . . $708,787 
do tools and 



Improved acres, 

do to each 

inhabitant, 

Cash value of stock,. . . 
Acres plowed in 1854, . 

do pasture do 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown 



14,803^ 



Winter do 

Oats, 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Corn, 

Potatoes, 

Peas 

Beans, 

Turnips, 

Tobacco, 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



8.58 
$106,409 
5,759 
4,882 
1,8551- 
1,089| 
336^ 
1,466| 
1,682 

m 

719 

1801- 

48| 

6^ 

9| 
1 



Apples, bushels, 48,715 

Maple sugar, lbs 8,210 

Wine, gallons, 3 



implements, $31,183 

Acres fallow, 93-J 

do meadow, 2,154-| 

Bushels grass seed,. . . . 372 

do harvested, 12,343-4- 

do .... 2,271 

do 28,099 

do .... 22,494-1- 

do .... 683^ 

do 20,352 

do 15,620 

do .... 598-1- 

do 105 

do .... 1,277 

Pounds harvested, .... 1,500 

Cider, barrels, 434| 

Molasses, gallons, .,.. . 86 

Honey, lbs., ^,015 



99 



Wax, lbs., 

Neat cattle over 1 year, 
Cows, 

Butter, lbs., 

Horses, 

Swine over six montlis. 
Fleeces, 

Value of poultry sold, . 
Fulled cloth made, yds.. 
Linen, do 



124| Neat cattle under 1 year, 

568 Working oxen, 

899 Cattle killed for beef, . . 

83,387 Cheese, lbs., 

648 Swine under 6 months, . 

531 Sheep, 

4,835 Wool, lbs., 

Value of eggs sold,. . . . 

76 Flannel, yds., 

28 Cotton and mixed, yds., 



311 
119 

58 

22,613 

591 

5,064 

19,.897 

$2,106 

378 

218 



Post offices, Otisco, Amber and Maple Grove. 



TULLT. 

Bounded on the north by Otisco and La Fayette ; east by Fabius ; south 
by Cortland county ; west by Spafford and Otisco. 

This town is situated at the summit between the waters that run south 
and north. The surface is rolling and some of it rough. The Tully lime- 
stone appears in a number of places. The soil is particularly adapted to 
grazing. 

The total number of acres in Tully, is 16,265|. 



Improved acres, 

Improved acres to each 

inhabitant, 

CashValue of stock, . . . 
Acres plowed in 1854, . 

do pasture do 

Tons of hay, 

Spring wheat, acres sown 



Winter wheat, 

Oats, 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Corn, 

Potatoes, 

Peas, 

Beans, 

Turnips, 

Flax, 

Flax seed- 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
(bushels,). . 



Hops, acres sown, 

Apples, bushels, 

Maple sugar, lbs., 

Honey, do 

Neat cattle under 1 year. 

Working oxen, 

Cattle killed for beef,. . 
Cheese, lbs., 

LofC. 



12,269-1- 

7.57 

$87,515 

3,825 

3,826 

1,797 

371 

321| 

1,465 

682| 

94| 
685| 

971- 

291 

U 

' 20-1 

132| 

1 

24,465 

5,945 

2,070 

285 

120 

150 

30,900 



Unimproved, ......... 

Cash value of farms, . . 
do tools and 

implements, 

Acres, fallow, 

do meadow, 

Bushels grass seed,. . . . 
Bushels harvested, .... 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do .... 

do ...... 

do .... 

do 

Pounds of lint, 

Pounds harvested, 

Cider, bbls 

Molasses, galls., 

Wax, lbs., 

Neat cattle over 1 year. 

Cows, 

Butter, lbs., , . . . . 

Horses, 



3,996 

$662,576 

$23,662 

157 

2,402| 

461- 

4,243 

l,424j^ 

29,070 

10,715 

1,036^ 

20,989 

8,059 

487 

85| 

94 

4,000 

6,000 

288-1- 

81 

171 

458 

1,102 

108,654 

562 



100 



Swine under 6 months, . 

Sheep, '. 

Wool, lbs., 

Value of poultry sold, . 
Fulled cloth made, yds., 
Linen do do 



389 Swine, over 6 months, , 



2,176 
5,918^ 

$721 
18 
27 



Fleeces, 

Value of eggs sold,, 
Flannel, yds., . . . . , 
Cotton and mixed» , 



374 

1,692 

$1,554 

116 

162 



Post offices — Tully, Vesper and Tully Valley. 



FABIUS. 

Bounded north by La Fayette and Pompey, cast by Madison county, 
south by Cortland county, and west by Tully. 

This town is best adapted to grazing ; the south' part has high hills, 
divided by deep valleys. The Tully limestone is seen at several points. 

Total number of acres in Fabrus is 26,778| 

Improved acres 19,784|^ Unimproved acres, .... 6,994^- 



do to each 

inhabitant 

Cash value of stock. . . . 
Acres plowed in 1854. . 
Acres pasture in 1854. . 

Tons of hay 

Spring wheat, acres sown 



Winter wheat 

Oats, 

Barley, 

Buckwheat, 

Corn, 

Potatoes, 

Peas, 

Beans, 

Hops, 

Flax, 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



^8.77 
$179,525 
3,762 
9,685 
5,205 

48U 

178 

1,614^ 

367-1 

55§ 

778| 

150-1 

Ulf 

2| 

1| 

03 

^$ 

13 

94 
746 
3,685 
357 
126 
105 



Flax seed, (bush.) 

Cider, (bbls.) 

Molasses, (gals.) ,._.... 

Honey, (lbs.) 

Neat cattle under 1 year 

Working oxen 

Cattle killed for beef . . 

Cheese, (lbs.) 527,770 

Swine under six months, 426 

Sheep, 2,972 

Wool, (lbs.) 12,356| 

Value of eggs sold $1,383 

Flannel, (yds.) 238 

Cotton and mixed,,. . . . 351 

Post offices, Fabius and Apulia. 



Cash value of farms, 
do of tools 

implements, 

Acres in fallow . . . , 
Acres in meadow. . , 
Bushels grass seed , 



and 



$958,355 

$35,251 
79 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



harvested 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



62^ 

4,877 

1,239 

32,159 

7,599 

510 

25,736 

11,162 

1,924 

135-i 

1,515 

587 

40,056 

6,615 

6 

179 

790 

2,637 

Butter, lbs., 143,500 

Horses, 735 

Over six months, 498 

Fleeces, 3,336 

Value of poultry sold, . $595 

Fulled cloth m^de, yds., 25 

Linen do 81 



Pounds harvested, 
do of lint, . . 
Apples, bushels, . 
Maple sugar, lbs.. 
Wine, gallons,. . . 

Wax, lbs., 

Over one year,. . . 
Cows, 



101 

INDIAN RESERVATION. 

The Indian Reservation consists of 5,971 89-100 acres, of which there 
is improved 2,063| acres. This 'reservation is situated on the Onondaga 
creek, in the towns of Onondaga and La Fayette. The south part of the 
tract is hilly. The soil is good, well watered, and abundantly supplied 
with water power. The state of cultivation is far inferior to that of the 
farms around, but it is improving. Many of the people live in good 
houses, — some of them quite elegant, having blinds well painted at the 
windows. The land is sufficient for the wants of the little remnant of this 
once powerful tribe ; and the 309 people living there have brought into 
cultivation 6.67 acres for each person — quite as much as the average of the 
county — and, to say the least, the quality is as good as the average of our 
farming lands. Nothing but industry is necessary to make these Indians 
as rich as their neighbors. 

In 1855, the cash value of their stock was $6,969.75. 
do do do tools was $8,942.25. 

Acres of wheat sown, 1845, 87| acres; and in 1855, 76 acres ; in 1845 
they harvested 1,156 bushels of wheat. 

1845 — Oats, 107 acres sown, yielded 2,111 bushels. 

Barley, 2| do 

Buckwheat, 2 J do 

Corn, 1891 " do 

Potatoes, 21 do 

Peas, 7| do 

Apples, 1,798 bushels. 
Meadow acres, 116^ ; acres plowed in 1854, 578| ; fallow, nine ; pas- 
ture, 126| ; maple sugar, 431 lbs. ; gallons molasses, 21-| ; neat cattle, 
1845, 189. In 1855, neat cattle under one year old, 33 ; over one year, 
108 ; working oxen, nine. In 1855, they had 40 cows, 42 horses, 44 sheep, 
and 142 swine. In 1845, butter, 1,150 lbs. ; value of unenumerated farm 
products 1855, was $489. 

The only manufactory is bead work, of which they sold $564 worth. 
These statistics are from the census taken by the State of New York ; 
and, as it happened, the year they represent (1854) was the most unfortu- 
nate for our farmers, in consequence of a drouth that extended through 
most of that part of the season necessary to the growth of crops ; and this 
may be considered the year of minimum production of grass, hay, and all 
the grain crops. The yields of grain are only given, that some comparison 
might be instituted between the several towns. The census taken by the 
Greneral Government in 1850, gives the productions of the counties, but 
not of the towns separately. The aggregates of the principal productions, 
as derived from the census of 1850 and of 1855, will now be placed side 
by side, that we may see how the whole county stands, at each of these 
dates. 



do 


70 


do 


do 


50 


do 


do 


4,492 


do 


do 


840 


do 


do 


91 


do 



102 



ANIMALS AND THEIR PRODUCTS. 



1850. 
1855, 



Work- 



Other 
cattle. 



Cows. 



3,150 22,008 21,2(13 
2,45427,242 24,801 



Butter. 

Lbs. 



Cheese. 
Lbs. 



Horses Mules iSwine. .Sheep. 



Wool. 
Lbs. 



2,147,518 1,004,878113,9871 |31, 018 112,990 345,880 

2,294,287i860,644|l7,.330' 8 31,539! 94,202 318,446 



PRINCIPAL VEGETABLE PRODUCTS. 



Wheat. 
Bushels 



Rye. 
Bush. 



1850 427,53545,095 
1855182,2061 5,340 



Corn. 
Bushels. 



Oats. 
Bushels. 



Tobacco Peas and 
Lbs. beans. 
iBushels. 



Potatos Barley 
Bushels Bushels 



782,220 891,331 73,731 24,081437,566440,293 
907,4531,015,227 554,9871 43,899380,141371,785 



Buck- 
wheat 
Bush. 



Hay. 
Tons. 



33, 673'82, 004 3,640 
32, 453163, 246;3,493 



A mere inspection of these tables is sufficient to show the tendency of 
our agriculture, making allowances, as we must, for the drouth of 1854. 
The plans adopted in taking a census by the General Grovernment, and . 
those for the State, are so unlike in many respects, that they do not enable 
us to draw perfect parallels. We cannot tell the acres sown in 1849, and 
therefore the yield per acre cannot be had. It is probable that as many 
acres of wheat were sown in 1854 as in 1849, but of this there is no cer- 
tainty. There is probably a falling ofi" in the number of acres of rye 
sown, as it has not generally proved a paying crop in this county. Corn 
is more generally raised, and as a crop is growing in favor ; the same may 
be said of oats. The number of acres devoted to tobacco was vastly 
greater in 1854 than in 1849. The area appropriated to beans and peas 
is also greater. The number of cows is increasing, while that of the sheep 
is decreasing. 

All our deductions from census returns must be received with a full 
knowledge that there is not yet sufficient system and care taken in gather- 
ing statistics to make the report entirely reliable. They are, at best, but 
approximations to the truth. More accuracy must be secured, and many 
more taken before we can receive their results as certain, Few farmers 
determine with accuracy the amount of even those crops that are measured 
in the half bushel — the hay is only guessed at. The most reliable returns 
are those that relate to the number of acres that are devoted to particular 
crops. A table has been calculated, and is here given, that shows the per- 
centage of the cultivated land, that is devoted (as appears by the census of 
1855,) to the leading crops, viz : Pasture, meadow, Wheat, (spring and 
winter,) oats, barley, corn, and potatoes. The calculation has been carried 
to three places of decimals ; and the table shows, by inspection, the com- 
parative areas used for these crops in the several towns, and the average of 
the towns for the county. 



103 



TABLE showing the 'population of each town, the number of acres of 
cultivated land to each person, the percentage of the cultivated land 
thai is devoted to pasture, meadow, wheat {Winter ar^d Spring) oats, 
barley, corn, potatoes, and to all other crops aggregated. Calculated 
from the Census o/1855. 



Camillas . . . 

Cicero 

Clay 

DeWitt .... 
Elbridge . .. 

Fabius 

Geddes 

La Fayette . 
Lysander . . 
Manlius ... 
Marcellus •• 
Onondaga . . 

Otisco 

Pompey ... 

Salina 

Spaft'ord.. . . 
Skaneateles 

Tully 

Van Buren . 
County .... 



o 


Improved 

ac"stoeach 

inhabitant. 


6 

u 


o 

(O 


d 
o 

.a 


o 


1^ 

3 




O 

O 


o 

a 
"o 


2,740 


6.98 


.266 


.125 


.129 


.120 


.086 


.114 


.013 


3,388 


4.24 


.306 


.219 


.033 


.145 


.006 


.117 


.030 


3,326 


5.87 


.283 


.237 


.032 


.149 


.025 


.111 


.021 


2,985 


5.24 


.300 


.203 


.081 


.116 


.019 


.121 


.014 


4,561 


3.68 


.260 


.154 


.110 


.101 


.068 


.118 


.013 


2,256 


8.77 


.487 


.284 


.030 


.081 


.018 


.039 


.007 


2,066 


2.31 


.236 


.187 


.079 


.160 


.038 


.105 


.025 


2,340 


7.69 


.287 


.153 


.072 


.167 


.080 


.072 


.010 


5,060 


5.35 


.337 


.177 


.078 


.116 


.044 


.113 


.015 


6,228 


3.47 


.266 


.163 


.093 


.146 


.024 


,118 


.012 


2,547 


6.10 


.301 


.173 


.074 


.094 


.092 


.090 


.013 


5,400 


6.11 


.257 


.164 


.114 


.135 


.064 


.097 


.015 


1,725 


8.58 


.329 


.145 


.096 


.099 


.113 


.048 


.012 


3,770 


8.60 


.318 


.181 


.059 


.120 


.080 


.066 


.010 


2,580 


2.54 


.287 


.215 


.0.37 


.111 


.018 


.012 


.036 


1,816 


8.61 


.,340 


.170 


.106 


.075 


.122 


.066 


.008 


3,976 


5.27 


.301 


.200 


.058 


.078 


.103 


.090 


.007 


1,619 


7.57 


.311 


.195 


.056 


.119 


.055 


.055 


.008 


3,085 


5.60 


.263 


.144 


.098 


.138 


.048 


.128 


.014 






.304 


.183 


.077 


.120 


.068 


.093 


.012 



o ^ 
o 

?_1 

.247 
.141 
.133 
.146 

.176 
.054 
.170 
.159 
.117 
.178 
.163 
.154 
.158 
.157 
.304 
.113 
.165 
.201 
.167 
.151 



This table shows that our agriculture is emphatically general, no one crop 
greatly preponderating, and taking the whole county into consideration we 
find that so great is the diversity of its agriculture, that fruitful seasons 
must find us with a supply of those products that the market most demands. 
The town of Camillus has the largest percentage of land devoted to the 
cultivation of wheat, nearly thirteen per cent. Comparing this town with 
the wheat growing counties of the State, we see that this is not, as with 
them, the leading crop. Livingston has twenty-five per cent, and Monroe 
has eighteen per cent devoted to this one crop. Orange is the noted 
grazing county, having forty-four per cent of its cultivated land in grass. 
Our town of Fahius is the only one in this county that exceeds this, having 
nearly forty-nine per cent of pasture, while the next highest town, SpaflFord, 
has ten per cent less than Orange county. 

POPULATION. 

In the year 1800, this county had a population of 6,434 ; in 1810, 
25,495; in 1820, 41,467; in 1825, 48,435; in 1830, 58,973; in 1835, 
60,908; in 1840, 67,911; in 1845, 70,175; in 1850, 85,890; in 1855, 
86,575. 

For the first three decades the increase of population was very rapid, 
beginning with 6,434, in thirty years it had risen to 58,973, an increase of 
52,539. From this point the population advanced at a much slower rate, 
and in the 25 years from 1830 to 1855 it had gained but 27,602. The 
first increase was at the rate of 1752 nearly per annum ; the last at only 
1104. The first thirty years' increase was on a small population ; the 



104 

next twenty-five years on a large one. The increase is now in the city. 
The purely agricultural town of Fabius had, in 1830, 3,070 inhabitants ; 
in 1855 it had only 2,256. In 1830 Pompey had 4,812, in 1855, 3,770. 
This falling off in the rural districts has attracted some attention, and the 
cause has been sought after. 

When the country was new, there was a large demand for labor, first to 
clear the forests and fence the land, then buildings were to be erected, not 
only to live in, but to store the crops. Roads, bridges, school houses and 
churches were to be brought into existence. All these things required the 
most active labors, not only of the farmers, but of all the mechanics they 
could find the means of paying. This busy population required shoemakers, 
tailors, merchants, in short every branch of business was quickened during 
this period. The winters brought no cessation of toil, the ax was in con- 
stant requisition, cutting down timber, then an incumbrance, that would 
now be of great price could it but have been preserved. The teams found 
full employment in transporting the trees thus cut down to the places where 
they were required. When spring came, the land was to be cleared of the 
logs and brush, fenced, and then planted to Indian corn. The clearing and 
fencing, cost from twelve to fifteen dollars per acre ; if we add to this the 
cost of the buildings, public and private, that were constructed previous 
to the year 1830, we shall find that an immense capital was invested ; most 
of which was created by the industry of the people. This once accompli?hed, 
the demand for the labor of axmen, teamsters and mechanics rapidly fell 
off, and thus the population began to diminish. The number of persons 
actually emplo} ed in the cultivation of the soil, is probably greater now 
than it was in 1830. It is true that the introduction of machinery for 
cutting grass and grain, and for saving labor in many other departments of 
farming, has somewhat lessened the demand for labor in the most busy 
periods, yet the more perfect cultivation now given the land, has probably 
created a demand quite equal to all that is saved by machinery. 

While the country was being settled and cleared up, small villages were 
wanted, where the post office, two or three stores, as many taverns, black- 
smith shop, &c., &c., supplied the wants of the immediate vicinity. As 
the roads improved, and the canals furnished facilities for reaching distant 
markets, these villages began to dwindle ; many enterprising merchants 
removed to more important places, and gradually business centered at a 
few favored points ; the most important of these in this county is the city 
of Syracuse. This has really been a process of adjustment of common 
interests for the general good. We may lament the decay of the country 
villages, but we cannot forget that the one great commercial center, supplies 
all our wants far better than they could have been provided for, had this 
business continued divided up. Syracuse rejoices in being surrounded by 
a fertile and highly productive country, teeming with well paid industry, 
and our farmers take pride in the prosperity of their own capital and busi- 
ness center, well knowing that as its population increases, so do its wants, 
and thus an ever growing market is in our midst. 



105 

The place of birth of the inhabitants of this county, as determined by 
the census of 1855, is as follows: United States, 65,126; of these there 
were born in 

New York, 57,589 

Connecticut, 2,319 

Massachusetts, 2,020 

New Jersey, 388 

Rhode Island, 337 

Pennsylvania 267 

Ohio 197 

Michigan, 136 

The total of foreign birth is 21,449 ; of these there were born in 

Ireland, 9,457 

Germany, 5,683 

England, 3,791 

Canada, 1,020 

France, 416 

Scotland, 204 

Unknown, 500 

In 1855, there were Indians resident on the reservation, 309. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PRACTICAL AGBICULTURE. 

The agriculture of Onondaga county is based on the Clover plant, 
Trifolium pratense. It is used for pasture, for hay, and for manure. 
Strike this plant out of existence, and a revolution would follow, that 
would make it necessary for us to learn everything anew in regard to culti- 
vating our lands. What their value would be without clover, we will not 
attempt to conjecture. We have this most valuable treasure, and appre- 
ciate it ; its influence and importance to us demands an extended account. 

There are two varieties of red clover, known among the farmers as the 
large and small. The large is but little cultivated, and is generally con- 
sidered of less value for hay or pasture, and yields but a single crop of hay 
in a season ; but where wanted for manure only, it is sometimes preferred 
for its heavy growth. 

Clover seed is usually sown on winter wheat, in March or April, in 
quantities varying from two to ten quarts to the acre, — eight quarts is gene- 
rally sown by the best farmers. Sometimes this seed is sown on oats, bar- 
ley and spring wheat ; but as it can be sown before the spring frosts are 
over on winter wheat, it is more certain to be covered by the freezing and 
thawing of the earth, and for this reason success is more certain than with 
any other crop. 

Gypsum, at the rate of a bushel or more, is usually sown on an acre 
after the ground is settled, and the crop has commenced growing. Some- 



106 

times the sowing of the gypsum is deferred until the wheat is harvested, 
and then sown on the stubble as soon as convenient. If the season is wet, 
and therefore a growing one, the small kind of clover will be in full bloom 
before the frosts of autumn kill the plants. 

It is common to pasture this young clover moderately in the fall, and 
opinions are somewhat divided as to whether this injui*es the future growth 
of the crop. 

In the following spring, gypsum should be again sown on the clover, at 
tlie rate of a bushel to the acre. By the twenty-fifth of June, or the first 
of July, the small variety is ready for making into hay, and should yield 
a ton and a half 'to the acre. Various opinions have been entertained as 
to the proper stage for cutting this hay crop ; but the general practice is 
to cut when in full bloom, or as soon as the earliest heads show signs of 
ripening. The process of curing varies with the weather and different 
farmers ; the general plan, however, is to handle as little as possible, and 
to cure mostly in the cock. As soon as the hay is drawn away, gypsum, 
at the rate of a bushel to the acre, should be sown. By about the first of 
October, the second crop will be ready to cut for seed. This crop should 
be allowed to ripen so that the seeds are full and mostly hardened. Some 
time is generally necessary, at this season of the year to perfectly cure this 
crop ; unless it is well cured and dry, it will heat in the mow to the injury 
of the seed. In the following winter, the seed is thrashed out at a cost 
of about one dollar a bushel. The straw and chaff is eaten with avidity' 
by cattle and sheep, and is of considerable value for forage — perhaps enough 
to pay for cutting, curing, and putting the crop in the baru. The seed 
generally averages three bushels to the acre — sometimes six bushels have 
been saved — and sometimes the crop of seed is a failure. The usual mar- 
ket price is about six dollars a bushel. 

After the seed crop is removed from the ground, there is a considerable 
part of the crop of hay left, particularly if it was cut high, as it should be. 
This stubble is usually pastured to some extent. 

In the spring following, the ground is plowed, unless wanted for pasture. 
If plowed, corn, oats, barley or spring wheat is sown, and a good crop is 
confidently expected. If it is intended that the clover shall remain on the 
ground more than one year, other seeds are sown with the wheat so as to 
make a more perfect covering of grass, and aid in filling the soil ^ ith roots. 
Timothy, Herd's grass, Phleum pratense, sown in September with the 
wheat, will aid in every part of the cultivation of the clover. The crop of 
hay will be benefited, and the surface of the ground will be more perfectly 
covered, and thus weeds kept out, and in case the second year is to be for 
pasture, it is important. 

According to Boussingault, one acre of the perfectly dry roots of 
clover will equal twelve and three-fourths cwt. This is manure for the 
next crop, and the same .may be said of the tops that are plowed under. 
The roots run deep into the soil, and thus pulverize it, so that a single per- 
fect plowing brings it into a most satisfactory condition. Some of our best 
farmers plow their fields deep once in a few years, and then shallower plow- 



lOY 

ing of this clover sod will show the long tap roots, that have been pulled up 
from the subsoil by the plow, projecting above the surface all over the field, 
looking quite like dead weeds. These roots have transferred the fertilizing 
matters of the lower soil to the surface. 

If our soils require improving we turn the clover crop under, and repeat 
the operation until there is sufficient fertility to allow us to carry the clover 
off. The oftener we can fill the soil with roots, and then plow them under, 
and thus allow them to rot, the sooner we expect to get our land in condi- 
tion to crop with grain. 

A very considerable part of the cultivated land of this county has never 
had any other manuring than this clover and gypsum, and its fertility is 
not diminishing. Fields that are distant from barn yard manure are rarely 
treated to anything but gypsum and clover. These fields are not cropped 
with grain as often as those that have the benefit of barn-yard manure, 
but they are manured at much less expense. 

The cost of a fourth of a bushel of clover seed at S6 is, |1 50 

do sowing is about 8 

do 3 bushels of gypsum at the mills is, 24 

do drawing same, 12 

do sowing at three different times, 38 



Total cost of manuring one acre, $2 32 



A field treated as described, having the first year given a crop of hay 
and another of seed ; the second year, an acre will nearly or quite pasture 
a cow from the twentieth day of May until the middle of August. If then 
plowed six or eight inches deep in the most perfect manner, it will be in 
the best possible €ondition for winter wheat, or if not wanted for wheat, the 
land may be used the second year for pasture the whole season, and put 
into corn or any other crop the next. Clover is a biennial, and two years 
is all that one seeding should stand. 

Prof. Emmons in his report, gives analyses of red clover cut before the 
development of the blossoms, and of hay cut when ripe. 

The young clover had of water, 80.31 

Dry matter, 19.69 

Ash, 0.40 

Ash calculated dry, 2.03 

Analysis of the ash of Young Clover. 



Silica, 

Phosphates, 

Carbonate of lime,. 

Magnesia, , 

Potash, 

Soda, 

Chlorine, , 



Per centum. 

0.981 


Removed in a ton 
of hay, lbs. 

0.446 


30.245 


13.459 


7.642 


4.400 


2.285 


1.015 


33.688 


14.991 


7.164 


3.147 


3.642 


1.620 



108 



Per centum. Bemoyed in a ton 

of hay, lbs. 



Sulphuric acid, 6.723 2.991 

Carbonic acid 5.744 2.556 



.114 44.625 



Clover hay {ait when ripe). 

100 grains of the sun-dried clover, lost in the water bath, 12.73 

And gave ash, 5.56 

Analysis of the stems and leaves, or the whole plant. 



Silica, 

Phosphates, 

Carbonate of lime, . 

Magnesia, 

Potash, 

Soda, 

Chlorine, 

Sulphuric acid, . . . 



Per centum . 

0.850 


Kemoved in a ton 
of hay, lbs. 

1.054 


20.600 


25.544 


30.950 


38.378 


3.930 


4.873 


25.930 


32.153 


14.915 


18.394 


1.845 


2.288 


0.495 


0.624 



99.515 123.308 



Analysis of the upper part of the stem, with the superior leaves and 

heads. 

Per centum. Removed in a ton. 

Pounds. 

Silica, 

Phosphates, 

Carbonate of lime, 

Magnesia, 

Petash, 

Soda, 

Chlorine, 

Sulphuric acid, 



" The two preceding analyses were of the ash as formed from well-dried 
hay, quite ripe, which grew ia Bethlehem, the soil of which is often sandy 
upon a basis of Albany clay." Prof. Emmons' Eeport, 1848, page 87. 

These analyses of Prof. Emmons are given, with a view to throw light 
upon the action of the red clover plant upon the soil ; its value as a crop 
for feeding farm stock will be readily determined by reference to the Trans- 
actions of our Society, for the year 1856, — article entitled "Nutritive 
AND Fattening Qualities of Grasses," page 245. J. Thomas Way, 
consulting chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, being 
the authority relied upon in the article. Full analyses of what Mr. Way 
calls the natural grasses, and the artificial grasses, will there be found. 



0.810 


1.003 


21.900 


27.156 


32.333 « 


39.969 


0.200 


2.480 


27.940 


34.645 


6.753 


8.374 


3.780 


4.563 


3.366 


4.174 


98.682 


122.364 



109 

For the purposes now in hand, it is only necessary to compare that of red 
clover with the most esteemed "natural" grass, that is extensively culti- 
vated by our farmers, viz : Pkleum pratense, known by the various com- 
mon names, " Meadow cat's-tail," " Timothy," and " Heard's grass." 

Albuminous Heat pro- 

or flesh form- ducing priu- Mineral Date 

Analysis of 100 parts of Water, ing priu- Fatty pies, starch, Woody matter ofcollec- 

plants as taken Irom the pie. matters, gum, sugar, fiber. or ash. tion, 

field. tec. 
Phleum pratense (Herd's 

grass), 57.21 4.86 1.50 22.85 11.32 2.26 June 13. 

Trifolium pratense (Red 

clover), 81.01 4.27 .69 8.45 3.76 1.82 June 7. 

The same plants after being dried at 212** of Fahrenheit, until all the 
moisture was expelled, gave the results that now follow, viz. : 

Albuminous or Heat producing Mineral 

flesh forming Fatty principles, starch, Woody matter or 

principle. matters, gum, sugar, &c. fiber. ash 

Phleum pratense, 11.36 3.65 63.35 26.46 5.28 

Trifolium pratense, 22.65 3.67 44.47 19.75 9.66 

These results of Prof. Way are quite in accordance with the opinions of 
our farmers, which opinions have grown out of their experiences. We sell 
our heard^s grass and feed our clover. The reasons are, the city buyers 
will pay more per ton for the beard's grass than they will for the clover, 
and we long ago come to think the clover worth quite as much as the 
beard's grass to feed. The objection that has been made to our making the 
clover plant take the position in our agriculture that the root crop occupies 
in that of the English farmer is, that in time we shall destroy our lands by 
this constant cropping without the application of foreign manures. But 
this system of manuring with clover and gypsum only, has been carried on 
for sixty years, apparently without any injurious effects. In 1849, the 
lamented Prof. Norton made the analysis that follows, of the soil and 
underlying rock of a field on the gypseous shales that had then been under 
constant cultivation for fifty years, without any other manure. Wheat, 
corn, barley, oats, hay and pasture had constantly been taken from the 
soil for that period of time. 

Soluble in water. 

Soil. Rock. 

Organic matter, 5.18 per ct. 3.74 per et. 

Lime, 0.04 

Magnesia, 0.17 1.58 

Potash and soda, 0.68 2.32 

Chlorine, 0.05 0.46 

Sulphuric acid, 0.17 .... 

Soluble in Muriatic acid. 

Lime, 0.26 6.75 

Magnesia, 0.15 9.43 

Alumina, 6.78 2.79 

Peroxide of iron with phosphoric acid, . . . 4.60 4.03 

Phosphoric acid, , 0.44 0,34 

Sulphuric acid, 0.07 .... 



110 

Soil. Rock. 

Soluble Silica, trace .... 

Carbonic acid, 13.72 

Insoluble in acid. 

Lime, 0.05 1.13 

Magnesia, 0.14 0.75 

Alumina and iron, 29.89 19,25 

Silica, 50.73 83.21 

99.40 99.50 



Both soils calculated free from water. , 

Soluble in water, 0.92 1.13 

"acid, 41.01 12.35 

Insoluble residue, 54.04 81,30 

WHEAT. 

Previous to the year 1846, Onondaga county produced wheat of the best 
quality, and in such quantities that it was the great staple, and the crop from 
which the farmers expected to realize their profits. In that year the midge 
destroyed the crop ; so entire was the destruction, that of seventy acres on 
the writer's farm, that on the first day of June gave promise of an abund- 
ant yield, not one bushel was harvested. Before this year, this insect had 
done some injury, but it was so slight as hardly to attract notice. In the 
fall of 1846, but little wheat was sown, and most of what was sown was 
Mediterranean, a variety then very little esteemed, but it escaped the 
midge and gave us good flour, though not as white as we were accustomed 
to. At once this wheat was in demand for seed, and its cultivation became 
general, though many less acres were sown than before the midge came. 
This was due in part to the low price paid for Mediterranean wheat, and 
partly to the fact that we had begun to learn that a single crop did not pay 
as well as many crops on the same farm. Some attempts were made to 
raise the old and most esteemed varieties of wheat in the year that fol- 
lowed, and sometimes with success, but gradually these attempts became 
less and less frequent, and now only in some favored localities where the 
soil is quick and warm, or on some windy hill top do we succeed with any 
but this one kind. Gradually the Mediterranean wheat has improved on 
our natural wheat soils, until the flour is perhaps equal in quality to the 
old red chaff. If the miller does not try to make too much flour from a 
given quantity, he can make the first quality. Since the troubles experi- 
enced from the midge, much more spring wheat is raised than formerly. 
The hi"-h lands south of the Helderberg rocks are particularly adapted to 
spring wheat. Spafford raised in 1854, 1419 acres of spring wheat, and 
only 253 of winter wheat, while Camillus raised of winter 2085| and of 
spring 31 1. The farmers of these two towns know from experience what 
is best for them, and it is proven that here in Camillus on the shales of the 
salt group, winter wheat should be grown, while spring wheat is better 
suited to the upper measures of the Hamilton group and the Genesee slates 



Ill 

of Spafford. We cannot reverse this state of things without loss to both 
towns. 

While our lands were new and incumbered with stumps, summer fallow- 
ing for wheat was very common. This was then necessary, as only by 
repeated plowings could we destroy the grass and weeds. As the stumps 
disappeared, we fallowed less. Now wheat is raised by plowing barley or 
oat stubble once, doing the work well. Where there are neither stumps 
nor stones in the way, and the land has been deeply plowed for the spring 
crop, this one plowing is found to answer quite well. Before the land is 
plowed, it is best to turn on the stubble as many animals as can be had, to 
pick up the grain that has been left. If the weather is wet, a harrow run 
over the stubble, will cause the scattered grains to germinate. If this can 
be accomplished, a thorough plowing will destroy them, and there will be 
but little to trouble the wheat. A second plowing would bring the stubble 
again on the surface, unless it was deferred until it was decayed, and this 
would generally take more time than can be had, and sow the wheat in sea- 
son. But where there is time to plow shallow, immediately after the oat 
or barley crop is oflF, and then allow the stubble to decay, a second plowing 
will prove of advantage. 

Clover sod, handsomely turned over in August, is very commonly sown 
to wheat. Occasionally a piece of land that has become weedy, is still 
summer fallowed. 

Before the wheat is sown, the ground is well leveled with a harrow, and 
if lumpy, it is rolled. The most approved method of sowing is with a 
drill ; and, in case the land is exposed to winds, the drill should move at 
right angles to the course of the prevailing winds, that the plants may be 
sheltered by the ridges that the drill will cast up between the rows. The 
severe winds of winter, if the ground is not covered with snow, often 
destroy wheat that is covered with a harrow, while that sown by a drill 
will live through. Another advantage of drilling wheat, is the protection 
the ridges give to the plants in the spring frosts — when ground that is not 
well drained will "heave," and thus elevating a crust of soil on the sur- 
face, tear and break the roots, and in many instances kill the wheat. In 
drilled wheat fields, the space between the rows will often rise in this way 
without disturbing the plants, — they being in rows, the cracks in the frozen 
surface will be alongside, and not lift thtm. 

After the clover seed has been sown, and the ground is sufficiently settled 
to allow the use of teams, a roller should pass over the field. This will 
settle down the ridges, and level off the surface, for the convenient passage 
of the reaper in harvest, and will aid in covering the clover seed. 

Well rotted barn-yard manure, applied in small quantities on the soil 
after it has been plowed, and before harrowing, especially on tops of knolls 
and on exposed side-hills, will abundantly pay the cost, and almost insure a 
■good crop. Our farmers generally sow two bushels of wheat on an acre, 
and generally put it in with a drill. 

There has been much speculation in regard to the capacity of our soil to 



112, 

produce wheat as abundantly as formerly. If the census report of 1855 
wa,s to be taken as evidence, it certainly would show that it could no longer 
be raised with profit. The General Government is to take a census which 
will give the results of 1859, and then we shall have a fruitful year to 
compare with the unfortunate year, 1854 ; neither will be correct, nor will 
the mean of the two be reliable, — for 1854 was by far the most unfortu- 
nate year for wheat that we have known, if we except the one marked by 
the devastations of the midge. The wheat crop of this county, at least 
the winter wheat, probably averaged in 1859, not less than twenty-five 
bushels to the acre. Some crops averaged forty, and many fields from 
twenty-eight to tTiirty-five. Riding over the county during the harvest, 
not a field was seen, that, to an experienced eye, did not promise more 
than twenty bushels to the acre The crop of 1858 was a good one. A 
ten acre field produced that year 410 bushels. The year 1857 gave a fair 
crop. These three years came up fully to the average of the crops before 
the midge appeared. If it was certain that the crops of twenty years ago, 
in quantity and variety, could be raised, we should not sow the large areas 
we then did, for there are other crops that pay a better profit. The price 
of wheat now varies from one dollar to a dollar and a half — rarely it reaches 
two dollars a bushel. The cost of raising an acre where the crop is 
twenty bushels to the acre — and this good farming will secure as an ave- 
rage, in ordinary seasons — will be. 

Dr. 

For plowing once, , . . . . $1 50 

Harrowing and rolling, 50 

Drilling, 31 

Seed, two bushels, at 10s., 2 50 

Harvesting, ^ 2 00 

Threshing, 2 50 

$9 31 

Cr. 

Twenty bushels at 10s., $25 00 

Straw, 2 00 

$27 00 

Profit, $17.69. 

The foregoing estimate is for a crop of wheat that requires only one 
plowing, and supposes the land to be in a high condition, and is to be taken 
as the minimum of cost, and the yield as only averaged by our best far- 
mers on our best wheat land. Wheat is liable to many uncertainties, and 
the failure of a single crop cuts doAvn the average of many good yields. A 
winter of constant deep snow kills the crop. A winter without any or very 
little snow, by exposing the plants to severe frosts, sometimes nearly 
destroys Mediterranean wheat. If these dangers are escaped, many cold 



113 

nights In the month of April, with warm days, will heave out the crop on 
wet land. Mildew or rust, on the very eve of what had promised to he an 
abundant harvest, will nearly destroy every hope, sometimes. Frequent 
warm rains in harvest will cause the berry to sprout, and nearly destroy its 
value. These uncertainties, with the depredations of the armies of injuri- 
ous insects, are to be taken into the account when we talk of average crops. 
He will be a fortunate farmer that, once in six or seven years, does not 
have a nearly total failure of a crop, that is in no wise to be attrributed to 
an unproductive soil. 

To guard against the uncertainties and dangers that are incident to the 
wheat crop, the only thing known to our farmers, that avails them, is per- 
fect cultivation of land in high condition, and the use of those varieties 
that ripen early. 

INDIAN CORN, OR MAIZE. 

Indian corn, as a crop, is constantly increasing in favor with our farmers. 
The census of 1850 reports 782,220 bushels, and that of 1855, 907,453 
bushels harvested. This shows a great increase in bushels — the difference 
in the area planted is probably still greater, as the drouth of 1854 must 
have placed the acreable product below 1849. 

Many different varieties of maize are planted in this county. The 
smaller and earlier being generally raised on the elevated lands of the 
south part of the county, while larger kinds are matured in the northern 
and lower parts. The warm, wet seasons are most favorable to the pro- 
duction of this crop. The months of July and August, if warm, and there 
are seasonable showers, will generally insure a good crop, though the rest 
of the season is not so favorable. The land should be well drained, and in 
high condition for maize. A clover sod, well filled with roots, turned over 
about the first of May, rolled and perfectly harrowed, is the most desirable 
preparation for the ersp. Our most successful farmers plant from the first 
to the fifteenth of that month. It has been shown by experiment that to 
produce large crops the hills should be near together ; but this increases 
the labor attending the whole process of cultivation and harvesting. Gene- 
rally we mark the ground both ways, with a marker drawn by a horse, so 
that planting the hills at the crossings of the marks they will stand in 
squares of three and a half feet. Six or seven grains are put in the hill 
and covered with a hoe — the dropping and covering being done by hand. 
If the ground is properly prepared, a man will plant two acres in a day. 
Various machines have been made to facilitate this operation, but thus far 
they have not gone into general use. It is important that the rows should 
be sufiiciently accurate and straight to allow the cultivator to go both ways 
of the field. A machine that will plant regular rows both ways is wanted. 
The seed should be covered about one and a half inch deep with mellow 
soil, which, if dry, should be well pressed down with the hoe. As soon as 
the plants are fairly above the grrund, a half gill of gypsum is placed on 
each hill by hand, and as soon as the rows are sufficiently plain, a one 



11 

114 

horse cultivator is run between the rows both ways of the field. The crop] 
is dressed with a hand hoe, all weeds and grass being carefully removed; 
this cultivating and hoeing is usually done twice, but in very clean land it] 
is often not necessary to use the hoe but, once ; but the cultivator should,! 
at short intervals, go through the field until the crop is so far advanced 
that the horse and cultivator begin to injure the plants. This cultivating, 
will be over with by the last of June. Nothing more is now to be done 
until the ears are nearly ripe — which will usually be in the fore part of 
September — when the stalks are cut near the ground and compactly set up 
in stocks of about twenty-five hills each, and carefully bound near the 
top, and again lower down. To do this will cost a day's work to the acre. 
In this condition the grain stands until sufficiently cured to husk and crib. 
This will be about a month after it is cut up. 

A man will husk, bind the stalks in bundles, stook them, and load into 
a wagon, about thirty bushels of ears in a day, of good corn. The draw- 
ing and cribbing is but a small expense, but will depend somewhat on the 
distance the field is from the cribs ; one cent per bushel will pay. About 
January, this grain will be ready to shell and carry to market, if it is to 
be consumed immediately. If the grain is to be put in large masses, it 
must remain in the crib until spring, to cure fully. The stalks are of great 
value for forage, and are fed to horses, cattle and sheep, and are considered 
as of as much value as equal weights of hay, for cows giving milk. 

The cost of an acre of corn is as follows : 

Plowing and harrowing, $2 00 

Rolling and marking, 50 

Planting, 4s.; and seed corn, 5 bushel, 2s., 75 

Cultivating, hoeing first time and plastering, 2 00 

do second time, 1 00 

do cutting up and stooking, 1 00 

Husking 100 bushels of ears,. 3 00 

Drawing and cribbing, 1 00 

Thrashing, 1 25 

$12 50 



This makes $12.50 as the cost of an acre of corn, which should yield fifty 
bushels. The price is rarely one dollar a bushel, and it is as rarely as low 
as fifty cents : perhaps the average is half way between — say seventy-five 
cents. 

This gives, as the value of an acre, $37 50 

The stalks are worth not less than > 5 00 

Giving, as the total value per acre, the sum of, $42 50 

The cost being deducted, 12 50 

There is left, for the use of an acre, $30 00 



115 

By this calculation, the corn costs twenty-five cents a hushel ; no charge 
J)eing made for manure, or anything but seed and the labor actually laid 
out. 

The average of the corn crop is not fifty bushels to the acre, if we take 
the whole that is planted ; but our best farmers make this average. 

There is no certainty in regard to crops. When we do all we can to 
secure an abundant yield, we sometimes fail ; but we have as few failures 
with this crop, to say the least, as with any of our staples. 

The insects most destructive to corn, are Cut-'WORMs, the larvae of dif- 
ferent species of Argotis. Doctor Fitch, in his reports, has described the 
five varieties, and expresses the opinion (p. 311), that neither the fertility 
of the soil, or the kind of manures which are applied, have any influence 
on these worms, "except in making the plants grow more succulent." 
He says, "we all know these worms are common in our highly manured 
gardens ;" and he adds that he has found them " plenty," on one occasion, 
among beans planted upon a hill-side, on ground so barren that it was 
thought nothing else could be raised there. In the year 1857, the Cut- 
worm did great injury to corn in this county, that was planted on sod land ; 
while those fields that had previously had the grass roots destroyed by cul- 
tivation, were very little injured. Few of our farmers are willing to put 
corn on land that the previous year was used for other grain ; and thus 
most of our corn sufi"ered. It was remarked that land in high condition 
was most unfortunate, and our best farmers suffered more than some of their 
neighbors. It is worthy of notice, that at the time of planting corn, no 
Cut-worms were seen, and they did not appear until about the time the 
corn was large enough to receive the gypsum dressing. The following 
year, 1858, the Cut-worm was seen in great numbers at planting, but did 
the crop very little injury. In 1857, the weather had been cold, up to 
about the tenth day of May; in 1858, the latter part of April was warm, 
and the worms were probably past doing much harm, when the corn came 
up. To avoid the Cut-worms, late planting is perhaps advisable. If they 
appear, to the injury of the crop, the only known remedy is to attack them, 
as Dr. Fitch says, " dig the worms from their retreats and destroy them." 
A new enemy to young corn has appeared here within a few years, the Sphc' 
iiophorus venatus of Say, or the Hunter weevil. This insect eats the leaves 
of the young plant, and in some cases it has materially injured the crop. 
This new acquaintance may prove a formidable enemy. 

OATS. 

The number of bushels reported by the census of 1850, as raised in 
1849, in this country, is 891,331 ; in 1854, 1,015,227; and it appears that 
in 1854 twelve per cent of all our improved land was devoted to this crop. 
Oats are usually raised oil corn stubble, by one plowing, and sufficient har- 
rowing to bring the surface into good condition. The yield per acre varies 
from thirty-five to one hundred bushels. Fifty bushels is common, and is 
perhaps averaged by our best farmers. The cost of raising the crop is 
about as follows : 



116 



Plowing and harrowing one acre, , 

Sowing and covering, . . . 

Seed, 21- bushels, at $0.50, 

Harvesting, , 

Threshing 50 bushels, at 4 cts.,. . 



$2 00 


ai 

1 25 


2 00 


2 oa 



Fifty bushels at the average price, 40 cts., will be 

worth $20 00 

The straw is worth 2 00 



$7 56 



Total value of the products of an acre, 22 00 



Leaving for use of land, .' $14 44 



There are but few failures to get a fair yield of this crop, and it is grow- 
ing in favor. Late sowed oats sometimes suffer from rust, especially on 
the low grounds of the northern part of the county. The best time to sow 
is from the middle of April to the first of May. 

It is not intended by the writer to say, that the wheat, corn and oats 
raised in this county, are produced at the profit given in these estimates by 
any but our best farmers. There are farmers whose crops fall far below 
the averages given, and who expend more labor in the cultivation — not 
because there is any real necessity for so doing, but because their poor 
farming is necessarily expensive. The land must first be put in good con- 
dition ; this costs time and labor, but once done, the whole business of farm- 
ing becomes pleasant, and reasonably profitable. 

BARLEY. 

This was until lately an important crop in this county. In 1849 we 
produced 440,293 bushels, which was 136,340 more than was produced in 
any other county in this State. In 1854 the production had fallen off to 
371,785 bushels, and it has been growing less and less every year since. 
Formerly we expected forty bushels to the acre, now we cannot rely on 
more than twenty. This falling off is principally due to the depredations 
of an insect, thus described by Doctor Fitch, in the Journal of our Society 
of April, 1859. 

" These are small insects, little over the tenth of an inch in length, the 
shape of their bodies having considerable resemblance to that of a wasp. 
They pertain to the order Hymenoptera and the family CkalcididcB, and 
are the only insects of this family yet discovered which feed on vegetation ; 
all the other species whose history is known, being parasites on other 
insects, feeding upon them internally, mostly when in their larvae state and 
thus destroying them. European naturalists, therefore, will scarcely credit 
us, when wo say these barley and wheat flies are enemies, and not friends. 
But so much evidence has now accumulated upon this subject, that we can 
no longer doubt as to their true character. They are much more nearly 
related to the genus Pteromalus than to the genus Eurytoma, to which 



117 

Dr. Harris referred them. Still, they may differ from other insects of the 
genus Fteromalus, and should very likely constitute a new genus. But 
until I have an opportunity to give the species of this most intricate group 
a more thorough revision, I am unprepared to decide as to their true generic 
.location. 

"The Black-legged, or Massachusetts Barlet-plt (Pteromalus? 
kordei, Harris) is black, its feet and knees pale dull yellow, its anterior 
shanks of the same dusky or blackish color with the middle and hind ones. 

"The Joint worm fly (which I propose to name Pteromalus? tritici) 
is black, its feet and knees and its anterior shanks pale dull yellow, its 
neck with a dull white spot on each side. 

"The Yellow-legged, or New York Barley-ply Pteromalus? ful- 
vipes) is black, its legs bright tawny yellojv, its feet whitish, its neck with 
a small dull white dot on each side." 

This insect attacks the crop just before the heads appear, laying its eggs 
in the straw ; the stalk is either entirely destroyed, or if any grain is ma- 
tured it is small and imperfect. When the crop is thrashed, small pieces of 
straw are seen, having enlarged places in which the cells and larvae of the 
insect are found. Unless some relief is found we must entirely discontinue 
raising this crop, and henceforth barley will hardly appear in our census 
reports. Winter bai'ley cannot yet be said to have had a trial here, but from 
reports that have reached us we have strong hopes of its being raised with 
success, 

RYE. 

This grain has been cultivated to a very limited extent here. In 1849 
the crop was 45,095 bushels; in 1854 it had fallen to 5,340. Our lands 
are too productive in other grains to make this crop profitable. More 
bushels of Mediterranean wheat can be raised in most of the county on an 
acre, than of rye, and this settles the question, the cost of raising the crops 
being about the same per acre. 

potatoes. 
But little more than one per cent of our cultivated land is devoted to 
this crop, and few farmers raise more than their own consumption requires, 
except in the towns near Syracuse. Salma has three and six-tenths per 
cent of this crop, and Greddes two and five-tenths per cent. From one to 
two hundred bushels is raised on an acre, rarely three hundred. The rot 
in wet seasons has proved destructive, and the crop is comidered as very 
uncertain. 

ORCHARD PRODUCTS. 

More attention is being devoted to raising fruit, and most of our farmers 
are planting orchards of all the choice varieties that succeed well here. 
Apples are exported to the eastern markets in large quantities. The apple 
has generally been successful, until within the last few years, we have suffered 
partial failures; the year 1859, however, came nearly or quite up to former 
years. Pears do well here, and will be extensively cultivated. The plum 



118 

and cterry no longer produce well. Insects have nearly driven these fruits 
from among us. Extensive nurseries of fruit trees are cultivated near Syra- 
cuse, the trees find a ready sale, and the demand is increasing. One of our 
principal nurserymen gives the following estimate of the number of acres' 
now used for raising fruit trees, viz.: in the town of Geddes, 75 acres; 
Salina 260 ; city of Syracuse 65 ; in the town of Onondaga 20 ; in other 
towns 80 ; making for the whole county about 500 acres. 

MEADOWS AND PASTURES. 

Over thirty per cent of our improved lands are devoted to pasture, and 
over eighteen per cent to meadow. Red clover, Trifolium pratense, Tim- 
othy grass, phleuvi pratensis, and red-top, Agrostis vulgaris, are sown 
and cultivated for pasture and hay. It is very rare that any other grass 
seeds are sown, but we find in most of our pastures and meadows that have 
stood a few years. White clover, Trifolium repens; Spear grass, Kentucky 
blue grass, Poa pralensis and P. compressa ; Orchard grass, Dactylis 
gloviera'a ; Meadow fox-tail grass, Alopecurus pratensis and A. genicu- 
latus ; Red-top, Agrostis vulgaris; and Quack grass, Triticum repens. 
Many other, but less abundant varieties might be found in old fields, but 
these are the important plants on which our cattle feed, summer and winter. 

The last mentioned Quack or Couch grass, is commonly regarded by our 
farmers as a foul weed. Once in land that does not admit of perfect 
cultivation this grass is eradicated with difficulty, but it is eaten readily, 
and even with avidity in the pasture, and if cut green makes good hay. 
Lands that are intended for permanent pastures are of very little, if any 
less value for having this grass in them. Its tenacity of life is a recom- 
mendation in some localities. Good farming will, in ordinary seasons, 
secure not less than two tons of hay from an acre of meadow, at a cost, 
in cutting, curing and drawing into the barn, of about $1.25 per ton. The 
general calculation for grazing districts, such as the town of Fabius, is an 
acre of meadow and two acres of pasture to support each horse, and each 
head of neat cattle or eight sheep, on the farm. In fact, Fabius has Ixttj 
acres of meadow for each animal, and IxVtr ^cre of pasture ; of both pas- 
ture and meadow, 3.03 acres are required for each animal. 

Teasel. Dipsacus Fullonum, or Fuller's Teasel. — The cultivation 
of the Fuller's Teasel, was introduced into this county about twenty years 
since, by Chester Moses, of Mareellus, and 'soon after into the town of 
Skaneateles by. John Snook, and has been cultivated in these towns to a 
considerable extent ever since. In 1858, about 500,000 lbs. were raised. 
Teasels are sown in rows or drills three feet and four or six inches apart, 
from the first of April to the first of May, as the weather will permit. The 
seed comes up in from fourteen to twenty-one days, — the plants are thinned 
at the second hoeing. All weeds must be kept down, and three hoeings 
are necessary. Clayey land, suitable for wheat is best for this crop ; land 
that heaves by the spring frosts is unsuitable, and sandy soils do not answer. 
The ground should be made fertile by previous good cultivation ; but it is 
not well to manure the crop itself, as by so doing, the plants suff'er by what 



119 

is called the "black spot," the growth being too rapid. Corn land that 
would produce fifty bushels to the acre, without manure, would be about 
right, as to condition. The land should be protected from northwest winds. 
The first season's cultivation is confined to planting, thinning, keeping the 
weeds out, and the ground mellow. When winter comes the leaves are six 
or eight inches long. The more snowy the winter is, the better. Some- 
times temporary fences are run across the field to cause the formation of 
snow banks, where it is feared that the ground may be bare. Sometimes 
the ground is slightly covered with straw for protection during winter by 
the Connecticut growers. As soou as it is dry enough to allow of cultivation 
the next spring, it is loosened, and every weed is cut down. In about three 
weeks after this dressing another will be necessary; by this time the plants 
will have become so strong as to cover the ground, and the center shoot with 
the teasel will appear. The cultivation must cease when the plants become 
so thick as to endanger their being broken. The blossoms, which are 
white, commence in a circle around the middle of the teasel and extend 
upwards to the top of the bur, then they begin to go downwards until the 
whole has blossomed — the blossoms drop in the order of their appearance. 
Lateral branches are thrown out at a later period, producing burs of a 
quality more valuable than the first and center bur, which is called a 
" king." A healthy, fine plant will yield from twenty-five to one hundred 
burs. When the blossoms have all fallen from a bur it is time to cut 
it off, leaving three or four inches of the stalk. The kings are cut first, 
as they ripen first. The side burs, called " queens," ripen and are cut 
later. The cutting begins about the tenth day of August, and must be 
performed by hand. A small knife is used, and the burs are dropped into 
a basket holding one and a half or two bushels, and carried to the curing 
house. This house should have doors to ventilate freely. Shelves, made 
of strips of boards, so as to give a free passage to the air, are used, on 
which the burs are spread about six inches deep. If the weather is damp 
it may be necessary to turn them, which can be done with a fork. If the 
weather is good, the curing will be complete in two weeks. Unless the burs 
are sorted when cut, it will be necessary to do this before they are packed 
for market. The kings make one sort, the queens another, and the small 
burs make the third — the very small burs, being of no use, are not cut. 

The kings are used in manufacturing coarse cloth, the queens on cloth of 
medium quality, and the small burs are used on the finest cloth. The 
teasles are carried to market in boxes made of thin boards, usually three 
feet four inches wide and deep, and six feet long. The teasles are sold by the 
pound, at from five to fifteen cents; the average price is about seven and a 
half cents, where they are raised. The crop varies from one to two thou- 
sand pounds per acre, averaging about fifteen hundred. At fifteen hundred 
pounds, and seven and a half cents, the acre brings $112.50. The last five 
years the average price has been as high as ten cents a pound, which gives 
$150.00 per acre. 

Cost of cultivating an acre is about as follows : 



$3 00 


75 


5 00 


5 00 


3 00 


5 00 


18 00 


9 00 


$48 75 



120 

Plowing, harrowing and marking, 

Sowing, $0.25 ; rolling, to cover seed, $0.50, 

Cultivating, hoeing and thinning, first time, 

do second time, 

do third time, 

do second year 

Cutting and placing on shelves, 

Curing and boxing (six boxes required to the acre), 



Say for all the expenses of an acre, $50.00. 

This crop is an excellent one to precede wheat, as the plants have tap. 
roots, and one plowing will put the ground in fine order. White beans are, 
sometimes raised the first year between the rows ; and, by so doing, all the 
expenses of that year are often paid. The teasle seed costs a mere nothing, 
and is of some value for feeding sheep. Hens do not like it. 

Although the teasel is a biennial, in case the first year's cultivation is poor, 
and the plants are too thick, they will not mature the second year, but can- 
be carried over, and made to head the third year. 

Thei-e is only a limited demand for teasels, and any great increase in thea 
crop is sure to reduce the price. 

Tobacco. Nicotiana — 
" Named after John Nicot, em- ~ 
bassador from France to Portu- 
gal, in 1560, who introduced th« 
abominable weed into Europe." 
So says Torrey. 

The cultivation of Tobacco, as 
a crop, was commenced in this 
county in 1845, by Chester Mo- 
ses and Nahum Grrimes, both of 
the town of Marcellus. They 
joined in hiring a man from Con- 
necticut, who was skilled in the 
culture. In 1846, Col. Mars 
Nearing, then of the town of 
Salina, raised ten acres ; and- 
very soon others engaged, in a 
small way, in raising this crop. 
By the census of 1855, it ap- 
pears that in the preceding year 
there were raised, in the whole 
The Tobacco Plant in full Blossom. eounty, 471^ acres, yielding 

554,987 pounds ; which gives, as the average yield, 1,178 pounds to the 
acre. It is thought that this crop pays a better profit, on suitable ground, 




121 



•when skilfully handled, than any other raiped here. Expensive buildings 
are first necessary ; then high manuring, careful and laborious cultivation, 
accompanied with skill, and a sacrifice of manure for other crops — unless it can 
be purchased — are to be taken into the account by any person who intends 
to enter on its cultivation. In the immediate vicinity of manure that can 
be purchased, this crop is increasing ; perhaps it is in other places, but what 
the effects maybe on the profits of other crops, there has not been sufficient 
time to determine since the introduction of what is now a staple. Mr. Ben- 
jamin Clark, of Marcellus, who is perhaps better acquainted with the facts 
in regard to the culture of tobacco than any other man here, estimates the 
production of 1859, as of the value of $150,000 ; of which he estimates Mar- 
cellus as producing $25,000 worth ; Skaneateles, $10,000 ; Van Buren, 
$20,000; Lysander, $10,000 ; Manlius, $8,000 ; Caraillus, $5,000 ; Geddes, 
$4,000 ; Salina. $8,000 ; Elbridge, $6,000 ; Onondaga, $8,000, and the 
residue divided among the other towns. 

From Mr. Clark, the following facts and estimates in regard to this crop 
are derived : 

A warm, rich, well drained, and mellow soil should be had, and then 
twenty-five loads of rotten barn-yard manure should be put on an acre. 
The land being in high condition, this amount of manure will be consumed 
by a crop. The plants should be set about the first of June, three feet 
four inches, by two feet to two feet six inches apart. To raise the plants, 
the fall before pulverize the bed fine, and mix with the soil hog or some 
other manure that has no foul seeds in it. Sow seeds on the well raked 
bed, as soon the ground can be properly prepared in the spring, about one 
ounce to a square rod, equally distributed all over the bed. Roll hard 
with a hand roller, but do not cover the seed. Glass should be kept over 
the bed until the plants appear, which will be in two or three weeks ; after 
they are up and started, the glass will be required only at night and in 
cold days. The bed should be kept moist and free from weeds. When 
the plants are three inches high they are large enough to set. To prepare 
the land, the manure should be applied as early as the ground is dry enough 
to plow. The last of May plow and harrow again, so as to mix the manure 

well with the soil. Mark the land one 
way for rows, three feet four inches. Make 
hills by hauling up a few hoes full of dirt 
and press it well with the hoe. In taking 
the plants from the bed take care to keep 
the roots wet. Unless the ground is quite 
damp, put a pint of water on each hill half 
an hour before setting. Make a hole, put in 
the root, and press the dirt close to it, all the 
way to the lower end. If any plant does 
not live, take care to set another. Unless 
the earth is wet, or at least moist, water 
The Plant and root as should be set. the plants soon after setting as may be 
9 




122 

necessary. In about one week cultivate and hoe. In ten or fourteen days - 

repeat the operation, and continue to cultivate 
so as to keep the weeds down. The tobacco 
worms may appear about the second hoeing ; 
kill them as fast as they show themselves- 
When the blossoms appear, break off the 
- stalk, leaving about fifteen leaves, taking off 
about seven leaves. 





A plant ready to top, place for topping 
indicated by 6. 



Plant after topping. / 

After topping, break off all the suck- 
ers. In about another week, go over 
again, breaking off suckers and killing 
worms. In another week repeat the 
operation. 

By this time the crop is ready to begin the harvest. This maybe known 
by the suckers which start at every leaf, and when they have all appeared 

down to the lower leaf, the plant 
is ready to cut, every sucker hav- 
ing been removed as it appeared. 
The stalks are cut at the root. 
In a warm day cut in the morning 
and evening. In the middle of 
a hot day, the leaves will burn 
before they are wilted. The best 
way is to cut in the afternoon and 
lay on the ground to wilt. This 

Plant with the suckers growing. wilting forwards the process of 

curing, and so toughens the plant as to make it practicable to hang it 
without much loss in breaking leaves. 

After wilting draw to the house, which should be twenty-four feet wide, 
fifteen feet high, so as to have three tiers, one above the other. A build- 
ing of this width and height, thirty-five feet long, will store an acre, or one 
ton of tobacco. The girts on the side of the building should be five feet 
apart ; a row of posts through the middle is necessary to put girts in, to 
hold the poles that the plants are tied to. The best poles are made of 
basswood sawed one and one-half by four inches, and twelve feet long. 

The plants are handed to a man who, standing on a moveable platform 




123 



made by a light plank, receives them, and beginning at the top tier he winds a 
piece of prepared twine around a stalk, fastening the first plant to the pole ; 




''"s^-".s,»„W2 



.o.**"*"" 




Tobacco House without side doors, end boarding, and end doors, to show tne manner of hang- 
ing the Tobacco. 

the second plant is placed on the other side of the pole, and a single turn is 
made around the stalk ; then again the third stalk is put on the same side of 
the first, the twine passed around, and the next on the other side, and so on 
to the end of the pole, where the twine is made fast. About thirty or thirty- 
six are hung on a pole, one-half on 
each side. If this twine gives way 
it is manifest that they will all be let 
loose. The poles are put on the girts 
about fourteen inches apart. In this 
way the whole building is filled. 
Skill is now demanded to regulate the 
ventilation until the crop is cured, 
which is determined by examining 
the stem in the leaf, which should be 
Hanging Tobacco on the poles. j^^rd, up to the main stalk. Then iu 

damp weather the tobacco can be taken down and laid in piles, with the 
tips together to keep it from drying, and to secure this, cover over with 
boards. The next thing is the removal of the leaves from the stalks, tak- 
ing this time to separate the broken leaves from the unbroken ones. They 

are then made 
into parcels of 
16 or 18, called 
" hands," and 
are fastened by 
winding a leaf 
around them. 
Pile these hands 
tips on tips, the 
Tobacco stacked after stripping. square ends out. 

This preserves the moisture. The pile should be kept covered with boards, 




124 

and the sides also covered, leaving the wound ends of the hands exposed to 
the air. If everything up to this point has been skillfully done, in four or 
five days the tobacco will be fit to pack in cases, and take to market. The 
eases should be of pine, two feet six inches square, by three feet eight 
inches, and of inch lumber. Place the hands tips on tips, and the wound 
ends against the ends of the box, press with a lever or screw until 400 
pounds is in, then fasten on the top. The tobacco now goes through the 
sweating process, and will lose about ten per cent in weight before fit for use. 
tThis tobacco is known in the market as " seed leaf," and is principally 
used for wrappers for cigars ; the refuse is exported. A crop handled in 
the manner described, and with skill, will sell in New York city, at from 
twelve to fifteen cents a poumd ; but from want of proper care and skill, 
the crop of this county does not bring an average price of over eight cents. 

Cost of Crop. 

The plants are worth per acre, $2 50 

Manure, 10 cords, say 20 00 

Fitting ground and marking, 4 50 

Planting and setting, 5 00 

Cultivating and first hoeing, 2 00 

do second hoeing, 1 50 

Topping, and killing worms, say 1 00 

Suckering, first and second times, 2 00 

do third time, 4 00 

Harvesting and hanging (four men and team one day), 6 00 

Stripping one ton, 10 00 

Five packing boxes, 5 00 

Labor of packing, , 1 50 

Twine, for hanging, 1 00 

$66 00 



A ton, at 13^ cents, is worth $270; deduct 10 per cent for shrinkage, 
and 1^ cents per pound for transportation and commissions, in all $52.00, 
leaves $218.00 as net proceeds. The cost being taken from this, $66,00, 
and we have $152.00 for use of land and buildings. 

This is the best statement that can fairly be made for this crop. If the 
price be put at the average our growers get, viz., eight cents per pound, we 
have for the crop, 1,800 pounds, afier shrinking, $144. Deduct $66 for 
cost, and $22.50 for commissions and transportation, in all $88.50, which 
deducted from the amount received, leaves $55.50, as the ordinary profit 
per acre. 

ROTATION OF CROPS, AND MANURES. 

From the account already given of our principal crops, the rotation has 
been so far indicated that little remains to be said on the subject. The 
most common and approved rotation is : 



125 

First year. — Glover sod, plowed in the spring, and planted to Indian com. 

Second year. — Oats or barley. 

Third year. — Winter wheat, sown on the stubhle of the oats or barley ; 
timothy grass seed, at the rate of four or six quarts to the acre being sown, 
cither with a machine attached to the drill, or by hand ; if by hand, imme- 
diately after the wheat is covered. In the following spring, red clover 
seed, at the rate of eight quarts per acre. 

Fourth year. — A crop of hay, and another for seed. 

Fifth year. — Pasture. 

In the south parts of the county, spring wheat is sown extensively, and 
the rotation differs somewhat from that given. Much more land is there 
devoted to grazing, consequently there is less plowing and re-seeding for 
grass. The rotation given is the most common, in all parts of the county 
where grain is extensively raised. 

Formerly our barn-yard manure was generally applied to the corn crop, 
being drawn fresh from the yard, and spread over the surface before plow- 
ing. This is not now so generally done, the objections to this mode being 
the cost of handling and plowing under this bulky, unrotted mass. Most 
of our farmers who raise grain, distribute their straw, in the form of bed- 
ding for their stock, under the sheds, in the stables and over the yards, 
during the winter — the stock eating what they will as it is carried out ; 
the corn stalks are fed with more care, but the parts not eaten mingle with 
the straw, and during the winter become wet by the rains and snows. As 
soon as the frost is out of the yard in the spring, everything should be 
piled up compactly, and in the most convenient form. The tops of the 
piles should be flat, to hold the rain. Spread gypsum over the whole sur- 
face, so that no stench will be perceptible. Some attention to this mat- 
ter may be necessary as fermentation progresses ; with proper care, the 
gypsum will prevent offensive odors from rising. During the winter, a 
free use of gypsum in the stables, will keep them sweet and pleasant. 
After cleaning out, spread a little of the dust over the floors, and throw a 
little on the pile of manure, as it grows in bulk from day to day. 

The contents of the yards having been properly piled in the spring, they 
will be ready to be turned by July, and will then demand attention. By the 
time the ground is plowed for wheat, the process of decay will have gone so 
far that the manure can be drawn to the field and spread from the wagon on 
the furrows ; the harrow will then mix it with the surface soil, and the drill 
can be used without serious trouble from straws clogging the spouts. A 
light dressing of this nearly rotted manure, will produce a very decided 
effect on the crop of wheat, as well as on the grass and clover that are to 
follow. If the wheat crop does not require manuring, grass lands are 
dressed later in the season, and the effect is most satisfactory. This mode 
of handling manure is less costly than the methods formerly pursued, and 
the results are more satisfactory. 

By stimulating a strong growth of clover and grass, we prepare the 
ground for the corn and oats that are to come next. This is a well settled 



126 

point among our best farmers, and most of them would prefer a good clover 
sod of two years' standing, that had been well manured in the manner 
described, with the wheat crop, to turn over for corn, than to trust that 
crop on land that had only received the green contents of the yards spread 
before plowing, and then buried six or eight inches deep where the roots 
would not find it until the fate of the crop had been nearly decided by a 
backward growth in the cold weather of May and June. There may be 
some loss in spreading barn-yard manure on the surface of a meadow or 
pasture in the fall, and it may be that the greatest possible effects of man- 
ure are to be secured by taking it directly from the stable to the field and 
plowing under very shallow, and then after it has rotted some, plow again 
deep, and thus sandwich it between two furrow slices. In this way every- 
thing might be saved, but at what cost ? 

The farmers of this county rely on their yards, with clover and gypsum, 
to keep up the fertility of their lands. A few of them use muck, and 
near the salt works, the ashes and pannings are used. Very few usp 
anything but gypsum and manure of their own production, and whatever 
census reports may say, the fact is patent and known to us all, that our 
lands are increasing in fertility, and the average of our crops is greater now 
than it was twenty years ago. Extensive inquiries made during the year 
1859, of our farmers did not show a case where this was not confidently 
asserted, and a glance around showed, in confirmation of the truth of the 
assertion, green fields, fat cattle, good fences, well painted, tasty and con- 
venient houses, and new barns, made necessary to store increasing crops. 
The truth is, elegance and luxury such as exists among the farmers here, 
could only be purchased and sustained by bkill in cultivating our lands, 
rich as they are by nature, and that skill they have, and with it constant 
improvement is the result. Deep plowing and draining such lands as require 
it, is becoming general, and care is applied to every branch of farming. 
Foul weeds are more perfectly eradicated ; everything shows advance 
among us. 

FARM STOCK. 

The early settlers of this county brought with them from New England 
such neat cattle as were then common. The first of the improved breeds 
known here were two imported cows that, in 1803 or thereabouts, were 
purchased by Timothy Sweet, of the town of Pompey, of Doctor Mordecai 
Hale, of JSew York city, he having purchased from Mr. Livingston of 
Dutchess county. These cows undoubtedly were of the best of the Short 
Horn stock of that day. One came to the county in calf, which proved to be a 
male. Mr. Sweet paid $500 for this cow and calf, an enormous sum for 
that day. The other cow, though equally good when she started, was 
injured on the passage, and it was supposed that her chance^ for recovery 
were very few, thus she was sold for $60. She did entirely recover, and 
these two cows were bred to this calf, and their descendants with each 
other until 1836. The mother of the bull was red and he was the same 
color, the other cow was spotted. These cows were excellent milkers, and 



127 

tliere are persons now living who assert that the mother of the bull has 
given forty quarts of milk in a day. This stock has been always known 
as the " Sweet breed." In 1830, David Ely purchased a full blood Dur- 
ham bull, out of " Fortunatus '^ imported by Gorham Parsons, of Boston, 
and bred by George Falkner on the river Tees ; the dam of Ely's bull was 
Rosebud, bred by John Watson of East Windsor, Conn. She was full 
blood, sired by Fortunatus ; her dam was Flora, out of Denton, who was 
imported. This bull of Mr. Ely was crossed on the Sweet cattle, and now 
the descendants of these two families make up a large portion of the cattle 
of Pompey and adjoining towns, but this is by no means the limit of the 
usefulness of these valuable animals. In 1816, or thereabouts, Thos. Gould 
of Pittsfield, Mass., purchased of Reuben Murrey, a Sweet bull for $100. 
He was shown at the Massachusetts shows, and extensively used, and had 
some influence in founding the "Red cattle " of New England. The bull 
purchased with his mother by Mr. Sweiet, was sold in 1808, he being then five 
years old, to Israel Chapin, of Canandaigua, N. Y., for $350, and there he 
founded the family known as the "Norton breed." In 1834, James L. 
Monier, of Naples, Ontario county, bought, of Reuben Murrey, a bull-calf 
for $100. He was used as a stock getter in that county. In 1820, Anson 
Sweet took a cow and bull calf to near Antwerp, .Jefferson county, and in 
1828, Milton Lord took a cow and bull to Livingston county ; thus these cattle 
were extensively bred from in various places, and have had much influence 
in improving the more common cattle of the country. Later, John San- 
ford of Marcellus brought Durham blood into that town. Harvey Baldwin, 
of Syracuse, purchased at Mr. Bullock's sale some twenty years since seve- 
ral excellent Durham cows. The Van Rensselaer stock was introduced 
about that time into Skaneateles by Silas Gaylord and William Fuller. 
Capt. De Cast of that town imported Durhams and Alderneys. Ayrshires 
and Devons have also been introduced in considerable numbers, so that 
now it would be difficult to find any considerablte herd of cows that had not 
a strong infusion of the blood of the improved breeds. 

This county has recently carried off leading prizes at the State shows of 
Buffalo, Watertown and Syracuse, awarded to animals of the best breeds. 

Of horses we have a great variety. Many years since Mr. Ely intro- 
duced two thorough-bred sons of the famous Eclipse into the eastern part of 
the county, and Mr. Thorn another into the western part. From these 
horses have been bred many fine animals. A son of Sir Henry, the com- 
petitor of Eclipse in the famous race, has many descendants here ; am^ 
more recently Col. John Burnet, of Syracuse, has kept at his stables the 
imported Consternation, well known as the winner of the first prizes in our 
Society. These horses, and others, such as Messenger and Duroc, have 
given us a strong infusion of the blood of the English race horse, 

Mr. John Legg, of Skaneateles, nearly twenty years since, imported from 
Canada two very fine horses of the Norman blood, and they were exten- 
sively used as stock horses. Cleveland bays, and the still larger English 
dray horses, have been crossed on the common stock to some extent. Gen. 



128 

Grifford, and other Morgans, have been owned here, and we have now many 
descendants of the famous Black Hawk. These breeds have been mixed 
and crossed as the varying fancy of each owner of a brood mare might for 
the moment dictate, so that we have no "breed," though many good animals, 
gome of them quite good enough to meet the.views of a connoisseur in horse 
flesh. 

The sheep of this county are generally kept for their wool, though a few 
mutton sheep of the Southdown, Bakewell, and like breeds, are raised. 
Formerly our wool growers had large flocks of Saxony sheep,* but the 
price for very fine wool not being satisfactory, gradually these flocks have 
been crossed with the Merinos, and at this time the favorite breed is what 
is called the " Vermont Merino." We have some French Merinos, and 
many crosses between the two families, and some of our wool growers pre- 
fer a dash of French blood to give size. 

Recently large numbers of these sheep have been bought for Texas and 
other southern States. In 1858 this county was awarded most of the 
first prizes for Merinos and Saxonys. 

Swine are not extensively raised here. The farmer generally contents 
himself with raising his own pork, and sells but little. We have had all 
the improved breeds, and just now the Sufi"olk is quite a favorite. 

It is no part of the purpose of this report to give a treatise on th6 best 
manner of raising and handling the various animals that we raise and use 
on our farms ; it is, perhaps, sufficient to say, that most of them are well 
housed in winter, and tolerably well fed all the year ; but it may not be 
out of place to giv« some estimate as to the cost and profit, if there be any, 
of raising stock. 

We have seen that in Fabius, which is a grazing town, if we add the 
whole number of neat cattle that are under one year old, and over one 
year, to the oxen, cows and horses, and then assume that eight sheep re- 
quire the same ground as one cow, and add thi.s one-eighth of the total 
number of sheep to the rest, we have a number which, divided into the 
acres of pasture gives us 1.91-100 acre for each, and of meadow 1.12-100 
acre, in all 3.03'100 acres of land as necessary to support a cow, horse 
(young or old), or eight sheep. The town of Tully requires less (2.22-100 
acres), because Tully has a larger percentage of land. devoted to grain, 
and thus has the pasture the grain fields yield, and their straw and corn 
stalks for winter feed'; thus the actual quantity of land required is more 
nearly derived from the statistics of Fabius than any other town. Assum- 
ing three acres as necessary, we make the estimate that follows : 

A steer at three years old has consumed the equal of the products of nine 
acres of laud for one year. This land, at $50 per acre, should give an 

* General John C. Ellis, many years since deceased, was a public benefactor, and should be 
remembered with honor, as the man who introduced the Merinos of the early importations, at 
great cost to himself. The blood he paid for is still here. David Ely is entitled to like 
honorable mention for his services in the introduction of the best of Saxony blood; ho is yet 
on the stage of action^ though no longer a resident of this county. 



129 

annual rent of not less than $4 per acre ; this gives for use of land, 4+9, 
=$36. The care and labor is worth not less than half this sum ($18 ;) thus 
the actual cost of the animal, at three years old, is not less than $54. The 
days required are 1,095, and the cost per day is nearly five cents. 

The sagacity of the farmers of our grazing districts has led them into 
more profitable business than even raising their own cows. They can buy 
them cheaper. Fabius, with 2,637 cows, made 143,500 lbs. of butter, and 
527,770 lbs. of cheese. If we take the ordinary calculation as correct, 
that their butter brings twenty cents per lb., and cheese eight Cents per 
lb., we have for each cow $10.88 worth of butter, and $16 of cheese — in all 
$26.88. One-half is usually allowed for labor, leaving for use of land 
$13.22, or $4.41 for use of each acre. These figures are taken from the 
census report of the unfortunate year 1854, and the products of cows in 
butter and cheese were unusually small, giving for each cow only 54.4 lbs. 
of butter and 200 lbs. of cheese. The farmers of Fabius would be very 
unwilling to take this as an average ; the calculation is only made here to 
show that they are correct in not raising cattle to sell while they can do so 
much better in dairying. 

In that part of the county best adapted to the cultivation of grain, our 
farmers generally intend to keep stock enough to manufacture their hay, 
cornstalks and straw, into manure. The necessary teams to do their work 
they must have, and cows enough to make their own butter, and, perhaps, 
a small surplus to sell ; the rest is generally made up with sheep, as the 
most convenient stock to handle, with the least labor. They calculate that 
eight Merino sheep can be kept as easily as a cow on the farm, and with 
far less labor. A good ewe should yield four and a half pounds of wool, 
worth forty-five cents per pound, which, for the eight, gives $16.20 ; and 
the eight should raise six lambs, worth in the fall $2 each ; in all $12, 
which, with the wool, gives $28.20. We could not profitably devote all 
our lands, that are good for grain, to raising sheep; but we can connect 
them in proper numbers with grain-raising to advantage. We think to 
more advantage than any other farm stock. 

To show the advantage of raising some stock, in connection with grain, 
we have only to take Camillus, which is a grain-raising town, and we find 
that only 1.15 acre is devoted to pasture, and 0.54 to meadow, for each 
head of neat cattle, of horses, and of eight sheep. This gives for pasture 
and meadows 1.69 acre each head. From this it is evident that the straw 
and cornstalks of Camillus, winter about half our stock, and that the pas- 
ture we get from our grain fields nearly half pastures them. If we could 
carry this calculation fully out, the cjjmparison would be still more striking, 
between purely grazing and the mixed agriculture. The town of Camillus 
has a large number of horses engaged in other business than farming, the 
canal running through the town, and being near Syracuse, a considerable 
part of our hay is sold there. 

In closing this account of the practical agriculture of Onondaga county, 
it is proper to state the difficulties and hindrances that lessen our profits, 



130 

and make our business uncertain. Under the head of climate, and in 
treating of the several staples, man_j of them have been alluded to ; but 
the great and overshadowing obstacle in our way, is the ever present armies 
of insects destructive to every crop we raise. Our fruit trees have their 
enemies — our grasses have theirs— -the wheat and barley have theirs ; the 
cut- worms, sometimes, destroy a crop of com, and even the oats suffer from 
their enemies — and within a few years the common grasshopper has be- 
come formidable, and is increasing in numbers at a rapid rate. If it were 
not for the destructive insects, we might dismiss every fear growing out of 
cold, or wet, or dry seasons, or early or late frosts, or even that thing so 
dreaded by theorists, the deterioration of the soil. There is no one thing 
we so much require now, as a knowledge of the habits of the whole of 
these tribes ; and the State cannot help us more than by keeping that most 
useful and learned man, Dr. Fitch, constantly employed, in the hope that 
his labors will result in finding the proper remedies with which to protect 
our crops. 

The prices here for farm laborers are from $12 to $16 per month, from 
the first day of April to the first day of November, besides board. By the 
year, from $12 to $13, or $14, besides board. Some of our farmers build 
small cottages, and hire men having families, who live in them and board 
themselves, and work by the month or day. If, by the day, the wages are, 
from April 1st to July 1st, 88^ cents per day ; for July, $1 ; for August, 
$1.25 ; for September and October, 88 cents ; from November 1st to April 
1st, 75 cents. In bad weather, no employment is given. 

Female labor is usually $1.25 per week, but a woman skilled in making 
' butter and cheese will command $1.50 or $2 per week. 



CHAPTER VII. 

PRINCIPAL MANUFACTURING ESTABLISHMENTS. 

Blacksmiths' shops 53 Band and belting factories. ... 1 

Furnaces 11 Cheese box do .... 1 

Machine shops 9 Marble do .... 2 

Iron railing shops 1 Drug and medicine do .... 1 

Cooper do , 38 Dyeing establishments 1 

Turning do 4 Boat building do 5 

Cabinet do 15 House do do 3 

Coach and wagon shops 45 Stair do do 6 

Carpenter do 12 Stone cutting do 8 

Boot and shoe do 53 Ice do 1 

Tailor do ...... 10 Undertaker's do 1 

Butcher do 7 House furn'g do 8 

Harness, &c. do 26 Carding & cloth dressing estab't 2 

Potteries 2 Asheries 3 

Tanneries.. 19 Bakeries 1 



131 



Daguerreotype 3 

Piano 1 

Hat and cap shops 4 

Milliner shops 1 

Brick yards 9 

Saddle and coach hardware. ... 8 

Printing offices. .... 6 

Dentistry 2 

Whip factory 1 

Woolen, cloth and yarn factory 6 

Agricultural implements do 16 

Water-lime mills 12 

Paper do 6 

Straw paper do 1 



Oil do 

Feed do , 

Grist do ...... 

Pearl barley do ...... 

Heading do ...... 

Planing do , 

Saw do 

Plaster do 

Spoke factories 

Wheelbarrow factories, 
Scale do 



1 
1 

36 
1 
4 
2 
81 
12 
1 
1 
1 



Brewei-ies 




5 


Chandeliers and soap 


factories 


• 2 


Confectioneries 




1 


Distilleries 


5 


Salt manufactories 


. 190 


Saleratus do 


1 


Silver-ware do 


3 


Tin and sheet iron manufac's. 


. 17 


Wire seive 


do ... 


. 1 


Vinegar 


do ... 


. 2 


Car 


do ... 


. 1 


Box 


do ... 


. 1 


Pattern 


do ... 


. 2 


Stave 


do ... 


. 5 


Chair 


do ... 


. 4 


Tobacco and cigar 


do ... 


. 5 


Lime 


do ... 


. 8 


Looking glass 


do ... 


. 1 


Gas 


do ... 


. 1 


Sash and blind 


do ... 


. 4 


Stone-cutter's tools 


do ... 


. 1 


Gunsmith 


do ... 


. 2 


Wooden ware 


do ... 


. 1 


Window shade 


do ... 


. 1 


Cotton 


do ... 


. 1 



The foregoing incomplete account of manufacturing establishments, is 
compiled from the census of 1855. It is only given here because there are 
no means of arriving at any better statement of this branch of our indus- 
try ; but it is by no means to be taken as a perfectly correct view of our 
manufacturing ; may the next census give us a better one. 

BUILDINGS AND FENCES. 

The census of 1855 gives the total value of the dwellings in the county 
of Onondaga as $11,622,549. Of this amount $6,228,627 belongs to the city 
of Syracuse, leaving for the dwellings in the several towns $5,898,922. 

This statement is all we have in regard to the value of dwellings, and 
the subject is only referred to (in the hope of calling attention to it in such 
a way), that when our next census is taken, we may have reliable informa- 
tion in regard to the amount of capital invested in barns, buildings used 
for farm purposes, for manufacturing etablishments, fences, &c., as well as 
the number of dwellings in each of the villages. 

In the absence of any means at present of determining these, it only re- 
mains to us to give some description of the general mode of building which 
is in vogue among the farniers of Onondaga. 

The first settlers constructed their dwellings of logs, but these soon dis- 
appeared, and were succeeded by a better class of houses made of wood, 



132 

brick or stone. The type of the old fashioned country house, borrowed 
from our New England ancestry, was a front of about forty-five feet, facing 
the road, with five windows in the upper story, and four, with a door, in 
the lower. This door opened into a wide, cheerless-looking, hall, with 
large square rooms on either hand. A wing, or extension to the rear, 
usually contained the kitchen and the woodhouse. Then came a fanciful 
style of architecture, characterised by many gables, valleys in the roof, 
low, hot chambers, and ornaments pendant from the cornices, making the 
whole edifice expensive, uncomfortable, and wanting in durability. 

This gaudy folly governed taste here but a short time, and has given 
place to a much improved style of farm house, having a hipped roof, no 
gables, and few windows. This house approaches the square form, has a 
wide projecting roof, and the least possible surface exposed to the action 
of the weather. 

The farmers of Onondaga go to great expense in constructing barns and 
stables for the storing of their crops, and the protection of their farm stock. 

When the country was new, and farms were just redeemed from the 
forest, rails were almost universally used for fences, and are so still in the 
northern part of the county, where cedar abounds, but along the line of the 
outcrop of the Helderberg range, stone is extensively quarried for that 
purpose, while in the southern towns post and board fences are more 
common. 

MEANS OP EDUCATION. 

The means of education in Onondaga are amply provided, and it is 
unnecessary to go beyond our limits for instruction, unless the advantages 
of a university are required. 

Academies were established soon after the settlement of the towns of 
Onondaga and Pompey, that are still in active usefulness. There has, for 
many years, been a well sustained academy in Manlius. In 1839, Mr. 
Nathan Munro founded the MuNRO Collegiate Institute, at Elbridge, 
endowing it with $20,000. It is now in successful operation, having a very 
fine building, that will accommodate three hundred pupils. The village of 
Jordan, in the same town, has an academy. These institutions are ample 
for all our wants, stan\iing, as they do, on a common school system that 
reaches every family, and gives facilities for acquiring a good English edu- 
cation to every child in the county. 

The census of 1855, gives the following statistics of common schools of 
the city of Syracuse, and several towns in the county : 

City of Syracuse, has school houses, 16, scholars, 9,334 

Camillus, districts, 10, do 1,023 

Cicero, do 15, do 1,305 

Clay, do 21, do 1,536 

DeWitt, do 14, do 1,089 

Elbridge, do 16, do 1,625 

Fabius, do 18, do 872 



133 

Gcddes, districts, 3, 

La Fayette, do 12, 

Lysander, do 22, 

Manlius, do 20, 

Mareellus, do 13, 

Onondaga, do 28, 

Otisco, do 12, 

Pompey, do 25, 

Skaneateles, do 17, 

SpafiFord, do 9, 

Tully, do 7, 

Van Buren, do 16, 

Total, 294 



do 


638 


do 


783 


do 


1,838 


do 


2,283 


do 


1,858 


do 


1,990 


do 


641 


do 


1,463 


do 


1,484 


do 


659 


do 


633 


do 


1,174 




31,428 



The number of scholars given is the whole number entitled to instruc- 
tion in the public schools, and entitled to draw money from the public 
funds for the support of the schools. There are many private and select 
schools not enumerated in the Census report. The city of Syracuse has a 
system of free schools that is thought to be equal in merit to any known, 
and to be conducted in every way to the satisfaction of the people. The 
important features will now be given t 

All the schools are under the control of a Board of Education, consist- 
ing of eight commissioners, one from each ward of the city, one-half being 
elected each year, all serving without pay. Annually the board elects, a 
chief executive officer called a superintendent, who gives his time exclu- 
sively to the care of the schools. The schools are thoroughly graded, and 
embrace, primary, junior, senior and higher departments. The course of 
study embraces the whole range from the elements to an extended academic 
course. The classes are taught so as to prepare pupils for college, and the 
English and mathematical studies embrace nearly the entire college course. 
During one term in the High school, each year, a normal class is formed, 
and the" pupils are thoroughly drilled in the elements of education and the 
philosophy of teaching. The theories of instruction presented to the nor- 
mal class are enforced by practice, as each of the members are required to 
enter one of the public schools and teach several weeks under the direct 
supervision of an experienced teacher. In this way the schools are con- 
stantly supplied with thoroughly qualified teachers. The distinguishing 
feature of the schools is the thoroughness of the instruction, and the grad- 
uates of the High school, will compare favorably with those of any institu- 
tion of similar grade. 

Special attention is paid to the other departments. The governing rule 
being to make the foundation sure, great care is taken in the selection of 
teachers for the primary departments, and higher salaries have been paid 
them than were paid in the higher departments, to secure the best possible 
teaching talent where it was thought to be mo>st important. A series of 



134 

experiments in regard to the nature of the instruction best adapted to 
these schools, has resulted in incorporating into the primary course of 
instruction, specific moral lessons, physical exercise, and lessons derived 
from tangible objects, generally known as "object lessons." Pupils thus 
have their powers of observation specially cultivated by continual refer- 
ence to the objects of sense, that everywhere surround them, instead of 
being dulled and deadened by the abstractions taught in the schools of the 
past age. 

Within the past two years the subject of phonetics has received consider- 
able attention, and it now forms an integral part of primary instruction. 
The result of the introduction of phonetics has been to secure a greater 
distinctness of articulation, and a greater facility of acquiring both spell- 
ing and reading than was ever before attained in the schools. The brogues 
and peculiarities represented in the schools have given place to an uniform 
excellence in pronunciation which was before considered unattainable. 

The number of teachers employed now is 69, five of them males and 64 
females. The greatest attendance last year was 5,258, and the average was 
2,496. The entire cost of schools per year, exclusive of buildings, is 
about $28,000, of which 118,000 is raised by tax, the other $10,000 being 
received from the public funds. 

NEW YORK ASYLUM FOB IDIOTS. 

In 1851 the State of New York started this institution as an experi- 
mental school in Albany. It was finally established on a permanent basis 
by erecting a commodious and well proportioned building in the town of 
Geddes, but very near the boundary line of the city of Syracuse. The 
site of the building is a little more than a mile from the center of the city 
in a southwest direction. The grounds consist of eighteen acres, purchased 
for the use of the asylum mainly through the liberality of the citizens of 
Syracuse. The trustees have leased some thirty-five additional acres, 
making in all a farm of fifty-five acres. The western and highest part of 
the ground is wood-land, the remainder descending with a fine slope to the 
south-east, terminates in a terrace of about four acres in extent, upon which 
the building stands. The site is sixty feet above the general level of the 
plain of the city. Thus the whole city is overlooked, the highlands of the 
south-east part of the county constituting the back-ground of a delightful 
landscape. 

The soil is made of disintegrated gypseous shales and the debris of the 
vermicular limestone, and is of the first quality. There is a fine orchard of 
fruit trees on the premises, and the efficient superintendent has availed 
himself of every advantage to make the land productive, and thus aid in 
the support of the institution. From the results he has obtained it would 
seem that a farm was a necessary adjunct, and the same skill and industry 
on the part of the management perhaps, would prove this true of most 
public institutions of charity. 

It furnishes a great variety of labor, some of the simplest kind that can 



135 

be engaged in with a moderate degree of strength or intelligence, and 
other requiring a good deal of judgment and dexterity. This exactly 
meets the wants of most charitable institutions. 

The institution, which has given occasion for these remarks, now pro- 
duces all the vegetables consumed by its family of one hundred and seventy ; 
the hay, grain and root crops, used in the stable, are likewise, in the maini 
produced by the labor of the inmates. A list of the various crops are 
added. Hay. 19| tons ; corn and oats cut for fodder, four tons ; Pota- 
toes, 591 bushels ; corn, 224 bushels ; carrots, 338 bushels ; turnips, 226 
bushels ; beets, 102 bushels ; tomatoes, 73 bushels ; parsnips, 17 bushels ; 
salsify, three bushels ; onions, six bushels ; cucumbers, five bushels ; pep- 
pers, one and a half bushels ; spinach, 15 bushels ; peas, 15-^ bushels ; 
beans, 11 bushels ; cabbages, 600 heads ; cauliflower, 100 heads ; pump- 
kins, ten loads ; squashes, 2,500 lbs. ; strawberries, 250 quarts ; currants, 
160 quarts. Besides these articles, a profusion of celery, lettuce, radishes 
and asparagus. 

This notice of the asylum has been introduced, not only to call attention 
to one of the earliest and largest of the institutions devoted to this charity 
in the country, but to show that the leading idea in its management is to 
give an industrial education to its inmates.' At least, whenever practica- 
ble, the aim is to develop the intelligence of the pupils to that degree, 
that they may receive such an education elsewhere, if it is not acquired at 
the asylum. To this end, all the instruction, all the management and 
training, has a practical tendency. This not only ensures, it is found, the 
highest comfort and enjoyment of the pupils, exposed to such influences ; 
but when they leave the institution has an effect to relieve their families 
or society from the burden of their support. They are trained, if possible, 
to produce as much as they consume. 

For eight months in the year, all the older boys spend a part of the day 
in labor on the farm or in the garden. The remaining months of the year 
they are employed in some simple mechanical employment. 

This institution was organized by, and has continued under the direction 
of Doctor Hervey B. Wilbur, and to his enlightened and untiring industry 
its great success is due. Its objects commend it to the lively sympathies 
of all philanthropists ; but in a paper like this, it would be out of place to 
dwell largely on a topic of this kind. We can only say that we have strong 
faith in its practical utility in ameliorating the condition of that most 
unfortunate class of persons for whose benefit it was established. 

CONCLUSION. 

All that now remains to be considered are the means resorted to by the 
Onondaga farmers to improve themselves in their ability to conduct their 
business. The establishment of agricultural periodicals marks the era 
when inquiry, and, as a consequence, improvement commenced. As soon 
as we began to discuss and investigate in regard to the best modes for ua 
to adopt in cultivating our lands, we saw the necessity of wide inquiry, 



136 

reaching not only into the practices of the most successful farmers, but 
into the reasons of those practices. From the silence that had so long 
marked our proceedings, suddenly great numbers demanded answers to 
diflficult questions, or were ready to give replies, as best they could, in 
regard to the principles that should be observed. Soon it was apparent 
that the practical man, however wise he might be, had not sufficient time 
at his command to solve the multitude of intricate problems, the solution 
of which he felt was important ; he must call to his aid the student and 
man of science. This has been done, and now scientific men are demand- 
ing facts upon which to base their reasoning, and practical men are as will- 
ing to give these facts, so far as they can determine them, as the student is 
to use them. But how are these facts to be determined ? It might have 
been supposed easy to learn the facts of a business in which most of. the 
world has been engaged since civilization had an abiding place, but such 
a supposition would have been unfounded ; uncertainty attends all we do ; 
and it will be long before either the practical or scientific men will agree 
among themselves in regard to sonie of the commonest processes of agricul- 
ture. The student sees the earth constantly bearing crops that carry off 
minerals that careful analysis finds in the most minute quantities, or not 
at all, in the soil, and he predicts ruin in the future. The practical man, 
more hopeful, goes on cropping, restoring to the soil only the least valua- 
ble part of the plants he cultivates, watching every indication of the neces- 
sity of a change ; groping his way in the twilight of agricultural science, 
longing for its meridian sunshine. 

This spirit of inquiry begat agricultural societies and fairs, the great use 
of which is, the facility they furnish for comparison of opinions and results. 
Meetings for free discussion have been found of great advantage, and many 
of them have been held in this county. Three times the State Society has 
held its fairs here, and for many years we have had a strong county society, 
and now we have, in addition, the Farmers' Clubs of Skaneateles and 
Manlius, and another in connection with some of the adjoining territory of 
Cayuga county, for the town of Lysander. A general disposition to impart 
and to receive information has called these agencies into existence, and the 
increasing wealth of the farmers enables them to sustain them. 

To the State Society we first direct our inquiries, and now that we see 
going into operation a State school, under favorable auspices, whose origin 
we trace to the society, we are looking forward most hopefully for a day of 
increased knowledge, and, as a consequence, prosperity. 



INDEX. 



A. 

PAGE. 

Aborigines — traditions of their origin 5 

" their confederacy C 

" their form of government 6 

'' power of their unwritten law 7 

" law of descent 8 

" inheritance limited to female line 8 

" their military organization 8 

" powers of the women in their government 8 

" division of labor between the sexes 8 

" national councils held at Onondaga 9 

" national army more than 2,000 men 9 

" extent of country subjected by them 9 

" their mode of conducting a campaign 10 

" demoralizing effects of their intercourse with the whites 10 

" Massachusetts and New York paid for scalps 10 

" Champlain invades their country 10 

" "is driven away wounded 11 

" the Iroquois invade Canada 11 

" Father Joque makes peace 11 

<' missionaries in Onondaga 11 

" war renewed 11 

" peace made by Le Moine 12 

" Onondaga invaded by the French - 12 

(' mercy shown the French by the Onondagas 12 

" Iroquois chiefs treacherously seized 13 

" France forced to return them 13 

" Montreal burned by the Iroquois in 1688 14 

" Frontenac invades and overruns Onondaga 15 

" tortures a voluntary prisoner 16 

" forts constructed in Onondaga by the English 17 

" Onondagas join the English in war of Revolution 17 

" punished by Van Schaick 18 

" treaty of Fort Stanwix 18 

" War of 1812— La Fort's death 18 

Antiquities of Onondaga 19 

Agricultural statistics of the several towns : 

Cicero 81 

Clay 83 

Lysander 84 

Elbridge 85 

Van Buren 86 

Camillus 87 

Geddes ? • 88 

Salina , . . , 89 

De Witt , 90 

10 



138 

PACE. 

Manlius 91 

Pompey 92 

La Fayette 93 

Onondaga 94 

Marcellus 95 

Skaneateles 96 

Spafford 97 

Otisco 98 

Tully 99 

Fabius 100 

Indian Reservation 101 

Animals and their products 102 

B. 

Barley 116 to 117 

Buildings - 131 

c. 

Caves 47 

Climate 79 to 81 

Census reports, remarks on, 102 

Clover 105 to 110 

Corn, Indian or Maize 113 to 115 

Conclusion 135 to 136 

E. 

Education 132 to 135 

F. 

Farm stock » 126 

Neat cattle » 126 

Horses 127 

Sheep 128 

Swine 128 

Remarks on stock 128 to 129 

Fences ' 131 

G. 

Geology : 

Rocks that outcrop in Onondaga 27 

Clinton group > > • • > 28 

Niagara limestone ^ 29 

Onondaga salt group ^ •. 30 

Water lime * 33 

Onondaga limestone * 35 

Corniferous and Seneca limestone 35 

Marcellus shales ■ S6 

Hamilton group 37 

Tully limestone 37 

Genesee slate 38 

Ithaca group 38 

Marl and Tufa 38 

Gypsum — its composition 67 

its use on land , 105 and 106 

H. 

Hamilton group of rocks 37 

Horses 127 



139 
L. 

PAGE. 

Lakes — Oneida and Onondaga 43 

Otisco, Skaneateles and Cross 44 

Lake Sodom 45 

Green Lake 41 and 46 

M. 

Manufacturing establishments 130 

Marl 38 

Meadows 118 and 119 

N. 

Neat cattle , 126 

0. 

Oats 115 and 116 

Orchard products 117 and 118 

P. 

Population 103 

decrease of in farming districts 104 

increase in cities and villages 104 

places of nativity 105 

of Indians 105 

Practical agriculture 105 

Potatoes 117 

Pastures 118 and 119 

E. 

Rivers and streams 21 

Rotation in crops 124 and 126 

Rye 117 

s. 

Surface of county 20 

Settlement by the Europeans 22 

Sheep and Swine 128 

Syracuse 25 

Springs — deep springs 47 

mineral, massena, &c 48 

Syracuse mineral springs , 49 

Salt springs 60 

Salt made by Le Moine 50 

" Comfort Tyler 51 

" James Geddes 51 

Progress of manufacture 62 

Laws regulating manufacture 52 

Quality of salt » 67, 69, 53 

Quantity made 55 

Mr. Spencer's account 56 to 60 

Form of lake bottom 60 

" 414feetwell = 61 

Depth of salt basin 62 

Manner of 'drilling and tubing a well 64 

Prof. Cook's analysis of the water 66 

Process of manufacture 67 

Dryness of salt essential 67 

Solar salt 68 

Prof. Emmons' tests of quality .... 69 

Soils of Onondaga 70 to 72 



140 
T. 

PAGE. 

Topographical sketch of county 20 

Towns, names of 20 

" population of 103 

" percentage devoted to different crops 103 

Trees of the native forests 72 to 74 

Tendency of our agriculture 102 

Teasel 118, 119 and 120 

Tobacco 120 to 124 

V. 

Valleys and lakes : 

Limestone, Butternut, Onondaga, Nine Mile and Skaneateles creeks 40 

East and West Valleys 41 and 42 

Oneida and Onondaga lakes 43 

Otisco, Skaneateles and Cross lakes 44 

Lake Sodom * 45 

Green Lake 41 and 46 

Vegetable productions, table of 1C2 

w. 

Water from Syracuse hydrants 33 

Weeds 75 to 78 



Wheat 



110 to 113 



ERUATA. 



Page 54. 3d paragraph from bottom, after "bushel," insert, "in 
1834 they were reduced to six cents." 
T2. " Thyoides," instead of "Thuy." 
T3. "Fraxinus," instead of " Fraximas and mus." 
13. " Tilia," instead of " Silia." 
16. " Solidago," instead of " Solidag-a." 
IT. " Taraxacum," instead of " Saraxacum." 
11. "Sonchus," instead of "Souchus." 
11. " Mentha," instead of "Mintha." 
129. Read 4X9 = 86. 
The names of trees are given from Prof. Torry's State Report, Vol. II., 
pp. 230, 231, 232. 



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